INTRODUCTION

19.1 Solid wastes refer to all kinds of solid, semi-solid and highly concentrated liquid wastes generated from production, consumption, living and other activities. This chapter deals mainly with hazardous industrial wastes, radioactive wastes, municipal solid waste (MSW) and used materials. Because China considers solid wastes to fall within a unified category, solid wastes of different kinds are being discussed in a single chapter. Recognizing the differing attributes which affect their management, this chapter has been divided into several program areas according to the properties of each waste.

19.2 On an annual basis, China generates about 600 million tonnes of industrial solid wastes and about 100 million tonnes of MSW. These wastes not only represent an enormous dissipation of resources but also result in serious environmental pollution. As an example, seepage from chromic slag generated by a factory in Northeastern China polluted groundwater making the water in 1800 resident wells undrinkable. More than 200 cities nationwide are besieged by MSW. Although China has begun generating nuclear power, the construction of low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste disposal sites is still at the stage of feasibility studies and site selection. It is estimated that the total value of the annual economic losses caused by solid wastes and incomplete use of resources from waste is approximately 30 billion yuan.

19.3 China is aware of the severity of the solid waste problem and considers the solution to this problem to be an important part in changing its traditional development mode and patterns of production and consumption. The Chinese Government has consistently attached great importance to the safe and environmentally-sound management of radioactive wastes.

19.4 This chapter focuses on perfecting the legal and regulatory systems and management approaches, on promoting the minimization of wastes (especially hazardous wastes), on implementing rational management and recycling techniques for existing solid wastes, on developing decontaminating and disposal technologies, as well as on establishing demonstration projects nationwide.

19.5 This chapter is closely related to Chapters 10, "Sustainable Development of Human Settlements"; 12, "Sustainable Development of Industry, Transportation and Communication" and 13, "Sustainable Energy Production and Consumption".

19.6 The present chapter includes the following four program areas:

PROGRAM AREAS

A. Disposal and Management of Solid Wastes

Basis for action

19.7 A large quantity of solid wastes are generated in China. For industrial solid wastes, the stack-up volume over the years has exceeded 6 billion tonnes, with a comprehensive utilization rate of only 40% and a relatively low disposal rate. Most of industrial solid wastes are simply piled up, causing serious pollution in surface and ground water. In 1991, it was estimated that 20 thousand hectares of cultivated land were polluted by solid wastes throughout the country. The total volume of industrial solid wastes discharged into the environment was 30 million tonnes, of which 11.81 million tonnes directly entered surface bodies of water.

19.8 The management of hazardous wastes is an important global environmental issue and a significant problem for environmental protection in China. Hazardous wastes refer to various toxic, reactive, corrosive, explosive and inflammable wastes. The annual quantity of hazardous wastes generated in China is about 30 million tonnes. This represents not only a squandering of resources, but also an important source of water, air and soil pollution. The present program area, therefore, places special emphasis on the management, decontamination and disposal of hazardous wastes.

19.9 Compared with the management of water and air quality, the management and pollution control of solid wastes in China is weak. At present, there are no complete legal and regulatory systems, no waste minimization regulations, no environmentally-sound landfill sites and no regional incineration plants for hazardous wastes, which are in compliance with safety standards.

19.10 China is approaching the issue of minimizing wastes by incorporating cleaner production into the agenda of sustainable industrial development and taking environmentally-sound management, treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes as one of the priorities of the national science and technology development program.

Objectives

19.11 By the year 2000, a scientifically-based system for managing solid and hazardous wastes will have been established. The recycling of solid wastes will be well developed and pollution caused by hazardous wastes will have been basically controlled. The specific objectives are as follows:

(a) To establish a basic system of environmental laws, policies and standards for solid wastes, to perfect management organizations at different levels, and to set up waste management centers in pilot cities;

(b) The comprehensive utilization ratio (CUR) of solid wastes should be 45-50%; the CUR for solid wastes produced by township enterprises should increase by 15-20%; the decontamination and disposal ratio for key hazardous wastes should be 10-20%; the CUR for hazardous wastes generated by the chemical industry should exceed 50%;

(c) To provide technical assistance for minimizing, recycling and decontaminating wastes; to establish demonstration projects for waste minimization, recycling and decontamination, which will include cleaner production, comprehensive utilization, waste exchanges, and centralized recycling, treatment and disposal.

19.12 After the year 2000, an environmental management system for solid and hazardous wastes should be in regular operation, and the pollution caused by solid and hazardous wastes should be basically under control.

Activities

19.13 Management activities related to solid and hazardous wastes:

(a) Formulate and implement the Pollution Control Law for Solid Wastes and the Comprehensive Utilization of Resources Law as quickly as possible, in order to include control of pollution by solid and hazardous wastes into the legal system;

(b) Determine the types, characteristics, quantities and conditions for pollution by hazardous wastes. On the basis of results of the survey, establish, on a trial basis, both a system of registration for the generation and reporting of hazardous wastes, and a licensing system for the storage, disposal and utilization of hazardous wastes;

(c) Develop policies and incentives to promote cleaner production. Formulate and implement waste minimization criteria for the major industries generating hazardous wastes (such as the metallurgical, chemical and light industries);

(d) Formulate laws, regulations and technical standards governing waste collection, storage, transportation, recovery, recycling, treatment and disposal, in order to form a complete legal system for hazardous waste management. Establish solid waste management centers in key cities;

(e) Promote the use of comprehensive utilization technologies for solid wastes, such as flue gases, gangue, furnace slag, steel slag, chromic slag, used organic solvents and mineral oil.

19.14 Promote the control of pollution by solid wastes through economic measures:

(a) Improve the discharge fee system for solid wastes. Levy discharge fees for total emissions and fines for emissions above allowable limits. As quickly as possible, formulate disposal and pollution control standards for industrial solid wastes. Establish pilot projects before broadening their implementation;

(b) Levy compensation fees for importing hazardous wastes. In order to prevent possible losses caused by the transfer of hazardous waste across borders or to meet an urgent need brought about by accidental contamination, it is necessary to establish a reserve fund;

(c) Levy taxes or extra discharge fees for producers of non-utilized solid wastes, for which established techniques and conditions exist for their utilization, so as to promote the comprehensive utilization of industrial solid wastes.

19.15 Scientific research and construction of demonstration projects for the disposal of solid wastes:

(a) Strengthen research on the management, recycling, treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes. Introduce advanced applicable technologies from foreign countries;

(b) Emphasize research into methods of conducting risk assessments on hazardous wastes, of recycling heavy-metal bearing wastes and of constructing regional centralized secure landfills and incineration plants;

(c) Create demonstration projects to serve as models for the management of the treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes. The following five types of demonstration projects should be established: electroplating waste minimization, chromic slag recycling, safe landfill and incineration of hazardous wastes, and recycling of plastic wastes.

19.16 Strengthen international cooperation:

(a) Based on the Basel Convention, formulate a Regulation Governing the Trans-boundary Shipment of Hazardous Wastes to China. Establish a national system of administration and supervision for the trans-boundary shipment of hazardous wastes to improve the level of management and promote the implementation of Basel Convention;

(b) In order to improve capabilities, to develop science and technology, and to build facilities for hazardous waste management in China, wide ranging bilateral and multilateral international collaboration should be launched in order to achieve the objectives put forward in this program area.

B. Safe and Environmentally Sound Management of Radioactive Wastes

Basis for action

19.17 Radioactive wastes are generated from nuclear facilities, applied nuclear technologies and the mining of radioactive substances. China's nuclear technology had developed quickly, and the first nuclear power station has commenced operation. Environmentally-sound management and disposal has been an important environmental public concern.

19.18 The Chinese Government and people attach great importance to the environmentally-sound management of radioactive wastes. In 1992, the State Council promulgated Environmental Policies for Low and Intermediate Level Waste Disposal. However, the following problems are still urgently in need of resolution:

(a) China has not formulated an overall plan for radioactive waste management which is appropriate to China's existing conditions;

(b) The final disposal of radioactive wastes remains to be resolved and the construction of low- and intermediate-level waste disposal sites has only recently begun;

(c) There are no procedures established for the management of large quantities of radioactive wastes generated from mining and using coal, for the operation of fossil fuel power plants, and for the excavation and comprehensive utilization of apatite and other associated minerals containing many radioactive substances;

19.19 Some international organizations, such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), are interested in and provide support for efforts to improve the management of radioactive wastes in China. IAEA has strongly recommended that this issue be incorporated into China's Agenda 21 in order to achieve the environmentally-sound management of radioactive wastes in this developing country.

Objectives

19.20 The objectives of this program area are:

(a) To formulate an Overall Strategy for the Management of Radioactive Wastes in China, to promote and enhance the safe and environmentally-sound management of radioactive wastes and to achieve the ultimate objectives of utilizing limited resources efficiently, protecting the environment and developing the economy;

(b) To construct demonstration disposal sites for low- and intermediate-level wastes, retrievable storage sites for high-level wastes and depositories for wastes produced by nuclear technologies;

(c) To establish a management system for radioactive wastes, and to set standards for the design of waste disposal facilities in nuclear power stations;

(d) To establish low- and intermediate-level waste tracking, detecting and quality guarantee systems to assist in the effective management of radioactive wastes.

Activities

19.21 Formulating China's overall strategy for the management of radioactive wastes will mainly include:

(a) Analyzing the current situation and trends with respect to radioactive wastes. Determining the quantity and characteristics of the radioactive wastes;

(b) Establishing and perfecting methodologies for the assessment of environmental impacts and health hazards imposed by radioactive wastes. Establish and improve appropriate computer programs and databases to support this work;

(c) Elaborating an overall strategy and specific management and remedial measures.

19.22 Formulating laws and regulations, technical standards and criteria for the management of radioactive wastes. This will include formulating the Atomic Energy Law and the Radioactive Pollution Control Law for the People's Republic of China and amending the Regulations Governing Protection from Radiation. It will also include establishing related by-laws and technical standards. This activity is related to Chapter 3, "Legislation for Sustainable Development and Its Enforcement".

19.23 Develop radioactive waste facilities and monitoring systems:

(a) Before the year 2000, build 3 low- and intermediate-level waste disposal sites. After the year 2000, construct 3-4 additional facilities;

(b) Before the year 2000, formulate detailed plans for the treatment and disposal of high-level radioactive wastes. Before and after the year 2000, conduct basic research to build a retrievable repository for nuclear wastes, to be followed by the construction of regulation disposal sites;

(c) Before the year 2000, build a nuclear technology waste storage site in each province in China. After the year 2000, gradually establish waste processing facilities, which will include waste separation, volume reduction, incineration and solidification. Set standards for the design of facilities for the disposal of wastes from nuclear power stations;

(d) Before the year 2000, establish a low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste detecting, tracking and quality control system.

C. Environmentally Sound Management of Municipal Solid Wastes

Basis for action

19.24 In China in 1992, the safe disposal rate of MSW was only 28.3%. In urban areas, per capita refuse generation was estimated to be 440 kilograms per year, with an annual growth rate of from 8-10%, while the safe disposal rate of MSW was less than 2%. Large amounts of MSW are transported to the periphery of urban areas for open dumping. The amount accumulated over the years has reached 6 billion tonnes and occupies over 500 million square meters of land. More than 200 cities are surrounded by MSW, which greatly damages the urban environment, worsens living conditions and prevents the development of urban construction.

19.25 The overall mechanization level for the collection and treatment of MSW is very low. Equipment is obsolete and not suitable for the task. The scientific and technological level of the treatment and disposal of MSW in China is in urgent need of improvement.

Objectives

19.26 Promote the minimization and reclamation of municipal refuse and improve the infrastructure for urban environmental sanitation. By the year 2000, the rates of refuse recovery and comprehensive utilization should be above 40%, and the decontamination and disposal rate for municipal wastes and excrement should reach 4-5%.

19.27 Improve management and regulatory systems, and gradually establish public and private enterprises for refuse collection and disposal. By the year 2010, all cities should have municipal refuse landfill sites and incinerating plants, which should meet environmental requirements, ensuring the disposal of all garbage.

Activities

19.28 Formulate and implement laws and regulations governing MSW, improve the system of managing urban refuse with all due haste and gradually introduce a system of fees for the treatment of refuse. Open coastal and scenic cities that attract tourists should establish a system for the segregated collection and safe disposal of refuse in the near future, while other cities will achieve the goal more gradually. Individuals and institutions are encouraged to create professional service companies for MSW collection, transportation and safe disposal. These activities are related to the Chapter 10, "Sustainable Human Settlements."

19.29 Take measures to minimize the generation of municipal refuse, such as increasing the supply of coal gas and natural gas and developing district central heating systems to reduce solid residues generated from direct coal combustion. Measures will also include providing clean vegetables to urban residents, developing decomposable plastic packaging, gradually implementing the use of garbage bags and segregated disposal, and encouraging waste recycling.

19.30 In accordance with local conditions, promote the safe disposal and recycling of urban refuse. The primary options for the safe disposal and recycling of MSW are sanitary landfill and composting, although some cities might employ incineration. By means of high-temperature composting, domestic refuse is now being processed into organic fertilizer and used locally. Monitoring of the rural environment must be improved. By the year 2000, biogas generated from sanitary landfills will be recovered and closed composting piles will be afforested.

19.31 Establish appropriate economic policies to encourage the development of the comprehensive technologies for utilizing MSW, for example in brick-making and cement-making.

19.32 Improve the infrastructure for sanitation by, for example, improving public lavatories, MSW transfer sites, faeces disposal sites, parking for sanitation vehicles and sanitation works yards. These kinds of improvements to the infrastructure are to be integrated into the design, construction and operational planning processes for municipal and industrial development.

19.33 Improve technical engineering studies on municipal refuse collection and treatment. Introduce and assimilate advanced technologies transferred from other countries. Emphasize the development of environmentally-sound technologies and equipment for use in the reclamation, treatment and utilization of MSW.

19.34 Establish demonstration projects as models for municipal refuse treatment and disposal. These should demonstrate sanitary landfills, high temperature composting, incineration and comprehensive recycling. Implement well-designed city-wide programs for municipal refuse collection and transport.

D. Management of Recyclable Wastes

Basis for action

19.35 Two components to managing the recycling of wastes are waste minimization and the recycling of used materials. China is high in the consumption of resources and low in its efficiency for second-use resource utilization, with large quantities of resources being transformed into wastes. Consumption of minerals per unit GNP in China is two to four times higher than in developed countries, and even higher than in India and Brazil. The overall utilization rate of second-use resources is only one fourth to one third of that of developed countries. Large amounts of used materials are not recovered. Annually, 3 million tonnes of waste iron and steel and 6 million tonnes of waste paper are not being recycled. The recovery rate for waste rubber is only 31%. By the end of this century, the total quantity of each of the following six major types of waste and used materials will increase remarkably: waste iron and steel will reach between 41.5 and 43 million tonnes, waste non-ferrous metals 1 to 1.2 million tonnes, used rubber 850,000 to 920,000 tonnes, waste plastics 2.3 to 2.5 million tonnes and waste and used glass will reach 10.4 million tonnes.

19.36 China's waste recycling industry has developed slowly, and its backward technology and processing cannot meet the current needs of development, which results in a low direct utilization rate. There is an urgent need for improving the waste recycling system, for changing present production and consumption patterns and for controlling the rapid increase in waste materials.

Objectives

19.37 Reduce waste and used materials. Standardize the classification and recovery of waste materials. Rationalize reprocessing and improve reutilization rates. Formulate laws and regulations for waste recycling. Improve economic and technical policies. The specific objectives are:

(a) Short-term objectives for waste minimization (by the year 2000) are to establish laws and regulations, to put forward development plans for waste minimization and to reduce the discharge of wastes by 20 to 30% in the leading waste-generating sectors;

(b) Mid-term objectives (by the year 2050) are to establish a complete regulatory and supervisory system for waste and recyclable wastes. Formulate appropriate laws and regulations. Packaging materials should be recycled. A nationwide campaign for waste minimization should be launched so that the volume of waste materials will be reduced by 80%;

(c) The long-term objective (after the year 2050) is to have a comprehensive system for managing waste and used materials in place.

Activities

19.38 Improve the recycling of used materials. The main activities include:

(a) On the basis of laws and regulations governing the comprehensive utilization of resources, formulate and promulgate laws governing the recovery and utilization of waste and used materials;

(b) National and local governments should amend policies and managerial mechanisms to facilitate the minimization of wastes and advances in the recycling of wastes. A unified system of the statistics, indicators and report forms should be established and integrated into the National Economic Accounting System. All levels of government should develop plans for minimizing wastes and have the minimization of wastes as an important element in their economic development programs;

(c) The conservation of resources and recycling should be regarded as key economic and technical policies and should be integrated into annual and five-year social and economic development plans. Improving the utilization rate of recyclable materials should be integrated with national and local social and economic development plans;

(d) Formulate and implement favorable economic measures to encourage the recycling of used materials. Establish an integrated and rational network of 110,000 stations in large and medium cities for the recycling and reclamation of solid wastes, based on the standard that one station will service 3000 families;

(e) Gradually establish reclamation information centers to form an information network and database at national and regional levels.

19.39 Integrate the minimization and recycling of wastes into the national scientific research program and pay special attention to the development of new technologies and equipment. A national demonstration zone for demonstrating advanced scientific and technological means of reclaiming wastes should be established.

19.40 Encourage public participation in waste recycling:

(a) Encourage the participation of women, youth, trade unions and other non-governmental bodies in waste reclamation work. Improve public awareness of resource thrift and reclamation to encourage the public participation;

(b) Establish waste reclamation stations and a supervisory network to be administered by non- governmental organizations;

(c) Integrate economical consumption and waste reclamation into teaching materials on environmental protection for primary and middle schools;

19.41 Devise preferential policies for international cooperation in waste recycling. Encourage foreign enterprises to establish joint ventures and foreign-run businesses to reuse China's abundant waste resources. Establish multinational corporations for waste and used material recycling.