INTRODUCTION

18.1 Problems associated with global climate changes and environmental pollution caused by human activities refer primarily to: the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the destruction of the atmosphere's ozone layer, and the trans-boundary movement of acid rain and pollutants. China also has grave responsibilities and difficulties with respect to the improvement and protection of air quality in cities. Efforts undertaken by China to protect the atmosphere are intended to ensure sustainable economic and social development and will contribute to the protection of the earth's atmosphere.

18.2 China has already signed and ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the amended Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances. China is now in the process of formulating national action programs for implementing this international convention and protocol. China has promulgated the Law of the People's Republic of China for the Prevention of Atmospheric Pollution. The prevention of atmospheric pollution and protection of the atmosphere is a long-term and complex undertaking. Of the international protection measures proposed, most are "reduction programs" aimed at limiting and reducing the emissions from fossil fuels and of other pollutants. The implementation of these programs will, to a certain degree, limit the scale and pace of China's economic development.

18.3 Developing strategies and measures for protecting the atmosphere involves the legislative, planning, financial, energy, mining, transportation, industrial, agricultural, forestry, animal husbandry, commercial, meteorological, oceanographic, environmental protection, scientific research and educational sectors. It requires concerted cooperation between sectors to achieve substantial results. Therefore, many actions in related program areas of Chapters 7, "Population, Consumption and Social Services"; 11, "Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development"; 12, "Sustainable Development of Industry, Transportation and Communications"; 13, "Sustainable Energy Production and Consumption" and 14, "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Natural Resources" will be of benefit in attaining the goals of each of the program areas in this chapter.

18.4 This chapter contains the following program areas:

ROGRAMME AREAS

A. Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution and Acid Rain

Basis for action

18.5 The existence of substantial coal resources and the present level of economic development in China have determined that a coal-based energy structure will exist for a long period of time. Therefore, the control of coal dust and polluting gases is a major task confronting China's efforts to control atmospheric pollution. Furthermore, more attention should be pay to controlling automobile emissions.

18.6 The major problems in controlling atmospheric pollution and acid rain in China at present are as follows:

(a) Almost all cities in China suffer from particle pollution, with the northern cities suffering the most, especially during the winter season. The emission of sulphur dioxide has been rapidly increasing causing acid rain problems over a large part of southern China and this has led to increasing contamination of forests, soil, and crops;

(b) There is still a severe shortage of advanced, practical control technologies. Desulphurization technology is still confined to the experimental and demonstration stages, not yet available for large-scale practical use. The technology for treating polluting gases produced by medium-sized and small industrial furnaces and kilns still needs to be improved. There is also a severe shortage of technologies, compatible with Chinese systems, for the control of acid-causing substances;

(c) An early stage of industrialization, small-scale production and emission of large quantities of pollutants has led to enormous air pollution problems in China. Coal consumption in small and medium-sized coal-fired power plants is higher than that of the developed countries by 30%; dust emissions from small and medium-sized cement plants are about 3.5 kilograms per tonne. Industrial enterprises have faced many difficulties while undergoing technological changes. Only 20% have undergone a complete technological revamping and only a few have reached advanced production technological and management levels;

(d) There is a huge demand for financial inputs for industrial renovation, due to the large long- term debts incurred. Estimated pollution treatment costs for China's old industrial enterprises are at least 200 billion yuan, and most industries are unable to meet this additional cost. These enterprises must take measures such as technical innovations, cleaner production processes, reform of industrial structures and distribution to control pollution;

(e) China's automobile industry is currently technological levels of the 1960s, characterized by high-energy consumption and causing serious pollution problems. An inefficient replacement cycle and the long period of use of an automobile have caused pollution at very high levels. Current emission standards lack effective enforcement, primarily due to a lack of funds, testing facilities, and necessary administrative capabilities.

18.7 A mechanism suitable for instituting macro-regulatory policies for controlling atmospheric pollution in China has not been established. The existing policy system lacks overall coordination, and this limits the roles of policies and regulations in controlling atmospheric pollution. There is still a lack of effective energy pricing mechanisms and environmental economic policies.

Objectives

18.8 By the end of the century, the following objectives will be realized:

(a) Improving air quality in major cities and regions. The amount of suspended particulate in the air will be brought under control. Average daily concentrations will be reduced;

(b) The national emission of sulphur dioxide should be restricted to 21-23 million tonnes, the emission of industrial particulate to under 7 million tonnes, and the emission of polluting gases to under about 14 million tonnes. The control of atmospheric pollutants should be expanded to include not only that of total suspended particulate and sulphur dioxides but also carbon oxides, lead, and nitrogen oxides;

(c) By the year 2000, the emission of hazardous gases by automobiles should not exceed current levels. China will formulate and implement emission control standards for steamboats as well as for automobiles.

18.9 In the years after the year 2000, efforts will be made to move towards total improvements in environmental quality. Environmental quality monitoring and warning systems will be established in all cities. Stronger control measures will be used to control mobile pollution sources. The control measures will be broadened from motor vehicles to include boats.

Activities

18.10 Effective management and practical control measures for coal pollution should include:

(a) Establishing and popularizing air pollution registration and licensing systems, with an emphasis on control of the total amount of atmospheric pollutants;

(b) Readjusting energy policies to improve the energy production structure by increasing the proportion of hydro-electric power, nuclear power and solar energy in primary energy supplies. Energy prices should be adjusted to reflect real costs and promote energy conservation;

(c) Developing supplies of coal gas, natural gas and liquified petroleum gas in cities. Increasing the rate of supply of domestic gas in cities, which by the year 2000 will provide 60% of the energy requirements. Efforts will be made to develop district heating systems, capable of heating 470 million square meters by the year 2000;

(d) Gradually readjusting levels of fines for emissions of air pollutants and promoting technical innovation in enterprises;

(e) Before the year 2000, concentrating on improving the air quality in the cities which suffer from severe air pollution.

18.11 Research and development in coal and acid pollution control should focus on the following areas:

(a) Developing effective particulate removing techniques for small- and medium-sized boilers and small combustion furnaces;

(b) Developing comprehensive technologies for controlling sulphur dioxide emissions, including briquette combustion technologies, cyclic fluidized bed combustion desulphurization technology, wet desulphurization and particulate removing technologies, technology for the reclamation of desulphurized residues and in-furnace calcium injection. Improvements and optimization of various technologies shall be carried out and demonstration projects will be established, so as to allow the results of studies to be applied in environmental protection, energy conservation, and the reclamation of pollutants;

(c) Developing technology for controlling sulphur dioxide at coal-fired power stations, including combustion technology in large fluidized beds, revolving spray drying desulphurization technology, in-furnace calcium injection technology, and calcite and gypsum desulphurization technologies;

(d) Appropriate technology for controlling acid-causing substances and nitrogen oxides will be developed and utilized;

(e) Developing effective coal washing combustion technologies, energy saving technologies and technologies for lowering pollution by industrial furnaces.

18.12 The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention and Treatment Consulting Committee and the Energy and Environment Special Committee should work together to establish management consultant bodies to provide background materials and recommendations for management decisions. Furthermore, the committees should establish methods for collecting and recording information on sources of emissions of atmospheric pollution to form a database network. Testing and monitoring mechanisms for the control of particulate and polluting gases will be strengthened throughout the country and should be gradually linked with a system for documenting emissions of atmospheric pollutants, thereby promoting a management model for total atmospheric pollution control.

18.13 China will draw on the advanced management experience of developed countries through professional exchanges such as sending Chinese scientists overseas for further studies and inviting foreign experts and consultants to teach in China. China will use existing economic resources for the acquisition of pollution control technologies at preferential prices, such as technologies for controlling sulphur dioxide and for high efficiency boilers. China will take an active part with the international community in activities and treaties that are designed to improve the quality and protection of the atmosphere. China will actively seek financial support from the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank.

18.14 Controlling mobile sources of pollution will be focused on following measures:

(a) China will work to develop new management practices, technologies, and economic policies for the control of mobile pollution sources. China will develop high efficiency, low polluting, and safe and reliable transport systems and will work to improve urban planning. China will reinforce the supervision and monitoring of automobile factories and will not permit the production or sale of products before licenses are obtained from the appropriate supervisory departments. These measures will encourage changes within the structure of the automobile industry by developing mass production techniques and raising levels of technology;

(b) China will improve the maintenance of vehicles to meet standards for emissions. Furthermore, a network of inspection stations to identify and fine vehicles with excessive emissions will be established;

(c) Data banks will be established to collect and store information on the total number of transport vehicles and their emission levels. China will analyze statistical data and establish scientific standards, based on actual pollution levels, in order to improve technological standards and to reduce pollution. China will gradually establish a transportation information exchange and service system to optimize transport and reduce empty weight;

(d) China will participate in international cooperation to study purification technologies and management practices. Through acquisition of foreign technology or joint venture production, China will work to substantially reduce the emission levels of automobiles.

18.15 Monitoring and control of acid rain will be focused on following activities:

(a) China will formulate national strategies and programs for the comprehensive prevention and treatment of acid rain and will formulate policies for controlling acid rain. China will work to improve acid rain monitoring techniques and networks;

(b) China will conduct studies on the impacts of acid rain and critical loads in different regions, on the ecological implications of acid rain, and on prevention and treatment measures;

(c) In order to improve China's acid rain prevention and treatment capabilities, China will cooperate with other countries to carry out long-term acid rain monitoring activities and to acquire foreign methodologies and technologies for controlling acid rain;

(d) In accord with the existing Proposed Regulations for Taxation on the Emission of Sulphur Dioxides, a system of taxation on sulphur dioxides will gradually be put in place;

(e) Experiments for the integrated prevention of acid rain will be conducted in areas suffering the effects of severe acid rain pollution.

B. Prevention of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Basis for action

18.16 The Chinese Government has established a national administration for the protection of the ozone layer, has formulated sectoral management standards, actively conducts studies on substitutes and substitution technologies, and financially supports technological revamping of enterprises, as part of its implementation of the Montreal Protocol on Substances Depleting the Ozone Layer.

18.17 The Chinese Government has compiled China's Report on the Protection of the Ozone Layer. With support from international organizations, and respecting the Montreal Protocol which allows for multilateral financial support to developing countries, the leading group for the Protection of Ozone Layer in China has summoned the relevant industrial departments to organize 9 expert groups, which in 1992 compiled the National Program of China for the Phasing Out of Substances Depleting the Ozone Layer. Under this program, the production and use of ozone depleting substances in China have been calculated and their uses in 1996, 2000, and 2010 have been predicted. China has proposed policies and techniques for gradually phasing out ozone-depleting substances (ODS). China has also developed a program and action plan for completely phasing out the use of ODS, and has identified what technological assistance is required and which projects need to be completed to realize the program by the year 2010.

18.18 With support from the World Meteorological Organization, China has established ozone observation stations in Beijing and in Kunming. Data collected at the stations over the past 12 years of ozone observation matches that collected by other observation stations around the globe. The State Meteorological Bureau is in the process of building a new base station in Qinghai, which should begin operation in 1994 and will provide additional data for the global observation of ozone.

18.19 In China's science and technology sector, research on the protection of the ozone layer is gradually increasing. However, in the process of implementing the Montreal Protocol, China has encountered difficulties such as diverse competing interests, lack of funding, under-developed substitution technologies, tremendous problems in upgrading technologies, and other economic and technical difficulties.

Objectives

18.20 By the year 2000, the release of ODS will be reduced by more than 60%. The utilization of ODS in aerosol cans will be terminated by 1997, and the use of foamed plastics (except for refrigerator insulation and hard polyurethane materials) will be terminated by the year 2000.

18.21 China will conduct research and development activities and will set up pilot projects for the production of ODS substitutes and substitution technologies. China will work to establish plants with 10,000 tonne capacities to produce ODS substitutes and related materials between 1996-2000. Furthermore, China will improve the testing methods for basic properties of substitutes and for substitution technologies and will establish ODS recycling networks.

18.22 China will improve the capabilities of existing long-term ozone observation stations, complete the construction of the Qinghai Observation Station, and gradually establish a network of ozone observation stations in China.

Activities

18.23 China will establish a legal system for controlling ODS, which will include a system for licensing both production and sales, for controlling the construction, expansion, and technological revamping of enterprises producing and using ODS, and for the inspection of the supervision of imports. Economic incentives and policies will be used to limit the production and consumption of ODS, and to encourage the use of substitutes and substitution technologies. China will seek to increase international funding assistance to China. China will amend the national plan for phasing out ODS in accordance with progress in implementing the Montreal Protocol.

18.24 Data banks and information systems for ODS production, consumption, imports and exports shall be created. Information on ODS production and consumption across the country will be collected on a timely basis, in order to evaluate and make predictions regarding the production, consumption, and environmental impacts of ODS, and the use of substitution technologies. It will also be used in the formulation or adjustment of policies.

18.25 China will support research on and development of substitutes and substitution technologies, and vigorously encourage development and utilization of non-ozone depleting substances. China will support scientific research on the protection of the ozone layer, on mechanisms of ozone depletion, and on health, environmental and economic impacts of ozone depletion.

18.26 In accordance with the Plan for National Programs, multilateral funding is required to fund projects which receive approval and which will ensure the smooth implementation of China's efforts to gradually phase out ODS. China will work to encourage international technology transfer and exchange with other countries. China will actively seek financial support from international organizations, conduct research related to the protection of the ozone layer and take an active part in international scientific information exchanges. China will seek direct international compensation for projects to select ODS substitutes and substitution technologies and support for the participation of the Chinese ozone observation network in the global system. China will participate in bilateral or multilateral activities to enhance scientific research capabilities, to encourage exchanges of personnel and technologies, and to jointly develop effective ODS substitutes and substitution technologies.

18.27 The number of professionals in ozone depletion related scientific and technological fields, industrial sectors, consumer and management areas will be increased. Special courses on the protection of the ozone layer will be offered at institutions of higher learning. Various forms of publicity will be used to increase public awareness and concern for protection of the ozone layer. The administrative means for implementing the Montreal Protocol will be strengthened, by raising the coordinating capabilities of the leading group for the protection of the ozone layer and other relevant research bodies.

18.28 In order to implement the national program for phasing out ODS, funding should be requested from multilateral sources for more than 150 projects, including demonstration projects, investment projects, and institution building projects.

C. Controlling Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Basis for action

18.29 The Chinese Government has created an inter-agency National Climate Change Coordination Group, which is responsible for formulating policies, programs, and coordinating scientific research. The China Environment and Economic Policy Research Centre has implemented the Research on China's Greenhouse Gas Sources and Strategies for Reduced Emissions Program. The Chinese Meteorological Academy has completed a research report entitled, "Global Warming Caused by the Greenhouse Effect and Its Impact on China". The State Science and Technology Commission has incorporated special research projects on global climate changes in the national program for tackling major scientific and technological problems during the period of Eighth Five-Year Plan.

18.30 By the year 2000, China's per capita emissions of carbon dioxide will still be less than one half the world's average of 1.2 tonnes per head, or one sixth of the 3.3 tonnes per head average of industrialized countries. China will actively participate in international activities aimed at controlling greenhouse gas emissions. In keeping up with China's use of energy resources and level of economic development, adjustments in industrial and energy structures will be made to improve terminal energy utilization technologies to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide. Many efforts will be made to study the emission sources of methane and to reduce the emission of methane from rice fields, through the scientific utilization of fertilizer and rational irrigation practices. At the same time, various measures will be actively sought and implemented to increase greenhouse gas sink and to contribute to the solving of problems associated with global warming.

Objectives

18.31 China wishes to bring the emission of greenhouse gases under control, reduce the growth rate of carbon dioxide emissions, study measures for reducing emissions of methane and nitrous oxide, maintain and strengthen greenhouse gas sinks. Furthermore, China wants to promote the coordination of activities undertaken by various governmental departments and to work out measures of adjusting to climate change.

Activities

18.32 A national program for controlling greenhouse gases will be formulated through coordinated efforts by various sectors. This program will include:

(a) An afforestation plan and an energy development plan to facilitate the control of greenhouse gases;

(b) Setting targets for emission levels, in accordance with the international convention for the control of greenhouse gases.

18.33 Research and development work should be enhanced to:

(a) Study and identify the impact of increases of greenhouse gases on global and regional climates and the impact of climate change on various sectors of economic and social activity. Identify countermeasures that should be taken;

(b) Study and identify calculation and testing methods for the emission of greenhouse gases. Measure and verify emissions of greenhouse gases;

(c) Study suitable methods for reducing greenhouse gases, for example, through the rational utilization of chemical fertilizers, the scientific cultivation of rice fields and the comprehensive utilization of agricultural wastes;

(d) Study and identify countermeasures that should be taken to meet the challenges of climate changes.

18.34 China will work to reduce energy consumption and accelerate the pace of industrial technological advance. Increasing public awareness of energy conservation will be promoted through the enforcement of the national energy conservation law. Limits will be imposed on the waste and poor utilization of energy through energy price adjustments. Efforts will be made to promote energy saving.

18.35 China will work to increase energy efficiency in the production of energy and improve the energy efficiency of machinery and electronic products. China will work to develop energy efficient industries and ecologically-sound agriculture.

18.36 Programs will be implemented to plant trees over wide areas in order to enhance the absorption of carbon dioxide to balance the emission of greenhouse gases.

18.37 China will participate in follow-up activities associated with the Climate Change Framework Convention and the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change and fulfil China's obligations with respect to the convention. The government will promote China's development and environmental endeavors, safeguard China's sovereignty, and encourage coordinated international activities. China will participate in research and scientific and technological cooperation in the field of climate change, seek international technical assistance, and improve China's levels of energy efficiency and energy conservation.

18.38 China will actively seek investment from the international community for projects which assist in the slowing of climate changes. These include projects for coal-fired power plants, hydroelectric power stations, coal gas projects, coal methane utilization and tree planting.

D. Construction of Climate Change Monitoring, Forecasting, and Service Systems

Basis for action

18.39 In the last forty years, and particularly since the 1980s, China has enhanced its climate change monitoring capabilities. In addition to land and air conventional observation networks, radar and satellite meteorological observation systems have also been developed. Yet, at present, the data collected from oceans, deserts, and high mountains is limited, despite the fact that knowledge of such areas is of critical importance to understanding actual energy and substance exchanges in the atmosphere and the equilibrium process, and to improving the precision of climate forecasting. There is a need to improve China's existing atmospheric monitoring system, which studies sea surface temperatures by satellite remote sensing data, earth radiation balances, clouds, snow coverage, aerosols and other parameters. There is also a need to reinforce the construction of China's climate change information storage, transmission, handling, display, analysis, and service systems, and to establish nationally unified standard carriers and forms. China needs to create data banks at all levels within the country, and to establish index-searching systems for data sharing.

Objectives

18.40 China will introduce modern remote sensing technology and automation technology to build an automated atmospheric monitoring system in China and to effect the automation of the network of base stations. Introduction of these technologies will aid in the automation or semi-automation of high altitude probing and observation and will improve atmospheric chemical and physical boundary observation. China will establish a meteorological satellite monitoring network to achieve a comprehensive, well distributed, highly automated atmospheric probing and observation system. China will work at solving problems regarding standardizing formats for all materials and information on climate systems in order to aid in the sharing of materials and data amongst organizations studying the climate system.

18.41 China will establish physical bases for observing short-term climate changes, develop forecasting methods for annual climate trends, and conduct professional forecasting experiments. Studies of theories on the dynamics of climatic systems and the forecasting of climate trends on a time scale of more than a year shall be carried out. Chinese scientists will study the impact of human activities and other natural factors on the climate to develop a theory of long-term climate change.

18.42 China will develop climate change assessment models to evaluate the impacts of climate changes on China's national economy and the environment.

Activities

18.43 Observation and monitoring should be enhanced to:

(a) Establish, on an incremental basis, automated climate stations and long term automatic recording climate stations in areas where monitoring conditions are severe, and where the level of social development and a lack of weather monitoring services require such facilities. Gradually place remote monitoring equipment in base-line and base climate monitoring stations, and in climate stations for monitoring aeronautical climatic conditions in order to realize the goal of full automation of monitoring equipment;

(b) Improve capabilities in time and space resolution and image processing in climate satellite remote sensing. Improve established methodologies and processing procedures for key parameters of satellite climate remote sensing data. Calculate key parameters of climate system, and solve the problem of a lack of climatic data from ocean, desert and mountainous areas;

(c) Use C-Band single use wind measuring radar (electronic probing systems) to replace the currently used double wind measuring radar (Model 59 probing system);

(d) Reinforce the monitoring of greenhouse gases that impact most strongly on climate changes and the environment;

(e) Develop telecommunication systems based on satellite communications, and create a network of scattered information banks to improve the collection and transmission of monitoring data concerning climatic systems;

(f) Establish processing systems to handle climate monitoring data, and find solutions to problems associated with having climate system monitoring materials stored in various forms;

(g) Improve the database for monitoring China's climate and encourage data sharing.

18.44 Prediction and forecasting should be enhanced to:

(a) Conduct further studies on China's prehistorical and historical climatic changes; establish standard curves for changes in China's temperature and humidity since the Cenozoic Era; determine the relationship between China's ancient climate and historical climatic changes and global changes; improve and verify climate data simulation in accordance with the facts and patterns of historical climate changes, so as to improve the reliability of climate forecasting;

(b) Conduct research on theories of climate change since the use of measuring devices, with an emphasis on creating criteria for understanding basic climate systems; analyze the principles underlying climate changes in China, and identify the relationship between climate changes in China and global climate changes;

(c) Study conditions and patterns of major natural disasters in China;

(d) Study the impact of solar, planetary, and earth activities and other natural factors on climate changes;

(e) Study the impact of human activities on climate changes;

(f) Study the process of climate changes; improve the existing models for atmospheric circulation, ocean circulation and regional climates;

(g) Carry out monthly and quarterly climate forecasting using various atmospheric circulation models, simplified models, and statistical models;

(h) Conduct research on the development of coupling high resolution climate models and a nested grid climate model; conduct data simulation for regional climate changes in China;

(i) Strengthen cooperation among meteorological, water conservancy, oceanographic, agricultural, forestry, and animal husbandry departments in forecasting climate changes.

18.45 Impact assessment and service systems should be enhanced to:

(a) Conduct further studies on the implications of climate changes for major social and economic sectors, in particular, prepare a quantitative assessment of implications for agriculture and forestry;

(b) Study the impacts of climate changes on climatically fragile areas, especially with respect to problems regarding lack of water supply and depletion of ground water, desertification, deterioration of grassland in drought and semi-drought areas;

(c) Carry out interdisciplinary collaboration while making assessments of the impacts of climate changes in the fields of meteorology, water conservancy, water resources, oceanography, energy, agriculture, and forestry. Organize interdisciplinary expert groups to assess the implications of climate changes, carry out comprehensive analyses, and provide services.

18.46 China will work to strengthen international cooperation in climate research, promote international academic exchanges, and the timely collection of global climatic data. China will work to learn about scientific and technological development trends abroad, and introduce advanced foreign science and technology to China. China will actively participate in activities undertaken by the World Meteorological Organization, UNESCO, the World Energy Council, and other international organizations, and promote the construction of climate monitoring systems and climate impact assessment and service systems in China.

18.47 China will emphasize developing human resources and raising their capabilities. In particular, China will pay close attention to the training of qualified people in the fields of meteorology, computers, telecommunications, and management.