INTRODUCTION

16.1 Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid, dry sub-humid and partly in seasonal dry humid areas resulting from factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Desertification implies reduction of biological productive potential of land, so far as to lose completely land productivity. Desertification which is a serious problem in China affects 8 per cent of total China's territory. Of which desertification caused by water erosion and by wind erosion is nearly half of the total desertified land area, respectively. Otherwise, salinized and desertified land caused by other factors is observed in China. About 0.17 billion population and 2100 hectares farming land is affected by desertification processes. Moreover, grain yield is low and unstable in these areas. A large area of grassland has been desertified, where the herbage is seriously degenerated and the animal carrying capacity is decreasing. 800 kilometers of railway and thousands of kilometers of highways are blocked by sedimentation. It is estimated that the direct economic loss from hazards of desertification all over China reaches 2-3 billions US dollars, while the indirect economic loss is two or three times that amount.

16.2 Soil erosion known as a major process of desertification has drawn worldwide attention. China is one of several countries in the world which suffers from severe soil erosion. Nowadays the total area of water erosion is 1.79 million square kilometers and the total amount of annual soil erosion has reached 5 billion tonnes. Soil erosion results in serious land degradation in many areas and the complete loss of organic material in the soil and finally exposure of the bedrock in some mountainous areas. Where rocky desertification landscape appears soil erosion also leads to the silt-up of reservoirs, lakes and rivers and an annual 10 centimeters rise in the bed level in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. Desertification caused by soil erosion seriously affects the development of the agricultural economy. Poverty-stricken counties located in the severe soil erosion areas account for 78 percent of the more than 200 poverty counties in China.

16.3 The objective of this chapter is to put forward strategies and measures to combat desertification in order to reverse the trend of ecological deterioration, maintain the sustainable land utilization and raise China's capacity for sustainable development, and make a greater contribution to the global fight against desertification.

16.4 Combating desertification is a long-term task for China. The Chinese Government promulgated "The law on forest in the People's Republic of China", and "The law on water and soil conservation in the People's Republic of China" in January 1985 and January 1991 respectively. In August of 1993, "The regulations regarding law on water and soil conservation in the People's Republic of China" was put into effect. A comprehensive system of administrative agencies for water and soil conservation ranging from the central government to the local authorities was set up. Preventing and controlling desertification is a long-term task for China. The content of this chapter is closely related to many other Chapters: 7, 8, 11, 12, 14 and 17.

16.5 The following program areas are included in this chapter:

PROGRAM AREAS

A. Comprehensive Rehabilitation of Desertification and Its Management

Basis of action

16.6 China has great success in controlling desertification. In the past four decades, 100,000 square kilometers of shelter-forests have been established in desert areas, and 10% of the desertified land has been brought under control. In addition, 1,300,000 square kilometers of agricultural fields have been newly reclaimed from deserts. Meanwhile 900,000 square kilometers of grassland which suffered from severe degradation has been restored and protected, resulting in a 20% increase in grass output. 8,300 square kilometers of fuel wood forest has been established to meet the need for fuel supply to 5,000,000 households.

16.7 However, desertification in China has been expanding in the past decades. The sandy desertified area generally increased by a rate of 2,100 square kilometers per year in the 1980s compared with the annual expansion rate of 1,560 square kilometers of late the 1960s to the 1970s. At present, not only the arid and semi-arid areas in Northern China are covered by a vast expanse of desertified land, but also some humid and semi-humid areas such as the plains in the north and east part of Henan province, the suburb of Tangshan city, and the surrounding areas of Poyang Lake and of Beijing find desertified land therein. The number of rocky slope fields caused by water erosion is expanding in Southern China. The desertification of the red soil and granite regions of Jiangxi Province increased by 12.9% in the 1970s to 26.7% in the 1980s. The area of desertified land in the middle part of Zhejiang Province also increased by 9.4% in the 1970s to 10.5% in the 1980s. The area of rocky desertified land makes up to 8.6% in Wujiang Basin of Guizhou Province. The formation of desertification in China is the results of over-cultivation, over-grazing and destruction of vegetation.

Objectives

16.8 To establish a system for combating desertification with the integrated goals of prevention, control and utilization. About 60,000 square kilometers of trees and grass was planted before the year 2000. To increase the controlled area of desertification from 10% to 30%, to reduce the speed of desertification to 1,000 square kilometers per year and to control desertification in the semi-humid, humid areas and the agriculture and husbandry mixed areas.

16.9 To establish desertification information monitoring systems and reduce the expansion of desertification resulting from adverse human activities.

Activities

16.10 The comprehensive fight against desertification and its management:

(a) The Government of China has approved the inclusion of the desertification control projects in the national economy and social development plans and promulgated preferential policies for using natural resources rationally in desertified areas;

(b) The Government has established the "National Coordination Panel for Desertification Control, "which consists of experts from the sectors of forestry, planning, finance, agriculture, water conservancy, environmental protection, land, banking and from Chinese Academy of Sciences, to be responsible for the unified coordination of desertification control projects throughout the country;

(c) To conduct a widespread assessment system of environmental effects for economic development and construction project in desertification areas;

(d) To establish local management offices for desertification control.

16.11 To establish The National Monitoring Center for desertification which will draw up scientific research plans and offer consulting services and make predictions and forecasts:

(a) To establish The National Center for Desertification Information while establishing local desertification monitoring institutions;

(b) To evaluate and monitor desertification by using aerial photos and satellite image in order to conduct the evolution dynamics of desertification;

(c) To establish criteria for the assessment and monitoring of desertification and to formulate standardized methods for data gathering and analysis to be used nationwide;

(d) To conduct a general survey to obtain the basic statistics on the distribution, areas and types of desertification and other natural and social conditions.

16.12 To actively develop international and national cooperation on comprehensive control for desertification and its management:

(a) To actively develop international cooperation in science and technology to learn from foreign advanced techniques;

(b) To strengthen the National Development and Research Center for Desertification; and create favorable conditions to strive for establishing Asia's Desertification Control/Program Activity Center under UNEP;

(c) To carry out commitments and participate in activities under the guidance of International Convention to Combat Desertification.

16.13 To strengthen scientific and technological means:

(a) To study processes of the formation and development of desertification and to establish criteria for assessment of desertification in order to provide a scientific basis for combating desertification caused by water erosion in Southern China;

(b) To study optimal structure of land use for various types of desertification and restore degraded land productivity;

(c) To establish a sound ecosystem in areas prone to desertification;

(d) To promote ecological and economic benefits through selection and introduction of a good variety of plants in various desertified areas.

16.14 To carry out major projects for combating desertification in Southern and Northern China and to strengthen demonstration and experimental projects in various types of desertification.

16.15 To strengthen human resource development and capacity-building:

(a) To actively mobilize rural surplus labor forces to work to control desertification;

(b) To conduct propaganda and education for combating desertification in whole country and enhance citizen's awareness of how to prevent desertification and how to protect homeland.

B. Economic Development in Areas Prone to Desertification in Northern China

Basis for action

16.16 The desertified areas in China are richer in sun-light and heat resources and there are some water resources, vegetation and plenty of minerals which could be exploited. To exploit these resources in the desertified areas in an appropriate way is not only a way of eradicating poverty, but also one major means to combat desertification.

Objectives

16.17 To develop desertification area-specific industries. Before the year 2000, improve the existing 13,000 square kilometers. Develop greenhouse agriculture in an area of 4,000 square kilometers. Develop dozens of mines and enterprises which, in turn, will create new chances of employment for the people in desertified areas.

16.18 The long-term objectives: to formulate laws concerning land management in desertified areas. To establish high-efficiency agricultural production systems and desertification area-specific industry systems in accordance with the Chinese situation in order to realize a benign circle of environmental and economic growth in desertified areas.

Activities

16.19 To establish the management mechanism and policies which are suitable for economic development in desertified areas:

(a) To further improve the household contract system in farming the land-contract should be made its basis and the responsibilities should be made clear, and the rights and interests of the contractors should be clearly specified in order to fully mobilize them in land operation;

(b) To establish a rural financial system in desertified areas in order to provide a circulating fund and services;

(c) To carry out favorable policies for helping desertified areas and to develop replacement economy of livelihood.

16.20 To strengthen collection of data and information concerning the economic development in desertified areas:

(a) Strengthening the research on the development of leading economic sectors and collecting relevant information in the desertified areas, especially information about high-quality and high- efficiency agriculture, for example, the techniques for greenhouse farming and for fruit-tree growing;

(b) Introducing and publicizing various sets of technology which can meet social, economic and ecological demands. Information should be exchanged with other sectors of agriculture;

(c) Investigating the distribution, types and amount of salt algae in desertified areas in China and developing techniques to exploit salt algae resources.

16.21 To actively carry out international and regional cooperation for economic development in desertified areas:

(a) To attract international technical and financial assistance for developing technology for greenhouse agriculture and water-saving techniques;

(b) To attract international assistance for sustainable development of industries in desertified areas.

16.22 To develop appropriate new agricultural technology in desertified areas and enhance scientific and technical means for economic development in desertified areas:

(a) To optimize land use in agriculture, forestry and husbandry by building mathematical models, according to system engineering theory and the exact situations in desertified areas;

(b) To study and publicize the technology for combating desertification for example, rationally utilizing water resource, water-saving techniques, selecting fast-growing and drought-resistant varieties of plants as well as setting rational density standards for first planting, etc.;

(c) To study and publicize new agricultural technologies for desertified areas, for example, sprinkling irrigation, drip irrigation and to introduce fine varieties as well as improving planting structure, etc.;

(d) To study and publicize new technology in husbandry, for example, breeding new varieties to increase benefits in processing and building man-made grassland. To study and create new ways to obtain herbage. To establish the number of livestock according to the quantity of grass and conduct planned pasturing by adopting methods of close-raising and house-raising;

(e) To study and popularize new ways of creating energy, for household consumption, for example, developing wind energy, solar energy and building methane-generating pits, firewood forests and energy-saving stoves, etc..

16.23 Demonstration projects: The demonstrative projects on advanced agriculture techniques, demonstrative projects on ecological agriculture in desertified areas.

16.24 Human resource development and capacity-building:

(a) To establish and improve the system for technical publication and services in desertification area, technical training for the combating of desertification for technical service stations would be established;

(b) The technical training for advanced agricultural techniques in desertified areas will be conducted for peasants. The number of peasants to take part in this program will be 2000 before the year 2000;

(c) The Government has decided to offer an amount of preferential loans each year for the development of agriculture in desertified areas.

C. Comprehensive Prevention and Control of Soil Erosion

Basis for action

16.25 China has a long history of preventing and controlling of soil erosion. Since 1949, there have been 527,000 square kilometers of land under comprehensive reclamation. The water and soil conservation capacity has been enhanced with an annual increase of 18 billion cubic meters of protected soil and a decrease of 1.1 billion tonnes of eroded soil. Since the 1980s, the state has appropriated special funds to conduct planned, selective and large-area control efforts which have helped to promote the development of small watershed reclamation and to speed up the program.

16.26 However the principles of "prevention being the main task and control being equally important" have not received consistent attention in theory, policy-making and planning for a long time. Prevention has not been put first. Man-induced water erosion has not been controlled effectively and resolutely. Therefore control in a specific place was often resulted in the overall destruction of a larger area: control accompanied destruction. Control only followed destruction. From the 1950s up to present, the area of water erosion in the Yangtze River Valley has increased by 40%, the newly-increased area of eroded land being three times that of land under control. According to the statistics from 14 provinces and cities, including Guangdong, Fujian, Shandong, Sichuan and Henan, the new increased estimates of soil erosion are 28,000 square kilometers, and new estimates of the quantity of soil erosion is 554 million tons as a result of mining, stone pitting, capital construction, road-building and destruction of forests and grassland. Facts show that intensified economic activities are the main cause of water erosion. Therefore a comprehensive prevention and control policy has to be adopted in combating erosion, inter alia, and newly-occurring water erosion has to be controlled.

Objectives

16.27 To implement comprehensively the law on water and soil conservation and conduct control in whole areas and in priority areas simultaneously. To strengthen prevention, supervision and management of water erosion, which is now top priority. To deter further deterioration by water erosion in order to return ecosystem to their natural cycles and to move to sound sustainable development in controlling soil erosion. These are:

(a) Before the year 2000, research will focus on the fundamental technical and economic policies of water and soil conservation, and their implementation. These policies will provide a good foundation for the 21st century, so that areas with soil erosion finally become a highly efficient ecological economic unit for agriculture, industry and commerce;

(b) 920,000 square kilometers of land subjected to light erosion (potentially threatened areas) will be identified and given priority for prevention. 7 priority protective regions at the national level and 25 priority protective regions at provincial levels will be set up respectively;

(c) The annual area under soil erosion control will increase from the present 20,000 square kilometers to 40,000 square kilometers by 2000. The comprehensive control area based on small watersheds as a unit will reach 320,000 square kilometers each in 2000;

(d) Reduction of soil erosion in priority areas: the original 16 priority areas with newly planned 60,000 square kilometers of land will be managed to increase the areas under control to 70% of the total by the year 2000. Eighteen new priority areas covering 570,000 square kilometers will be designated, of which 250,000 square kilometers of land is suffering from soil erosion. 107,000 square kilometers of this land will be controlled in order to raise the control rate to 40%;

(e) Construction projects will be examined and approved for the purpose of water and soil conservation. Two supervised regions at the national level and 25 supervised regions at the provincial level will be established;

(f) To improve the strategies for water and soil conservation and the science and technology system: To adjust the conservation strategy in accordance with the developing situation, to research the control and exploitation models of areas suffering from soil erosion, to set standards for control and methods for benefit assessment; in the restoration of vegetation and its benefits to arid regions with soil erosion and policies for controlling soil erosion caused by industrialization and transportation;

(g) To establish information system within China to predict developing trends in soil erosion. In five to ten years, a small-scale unified information network should be developed composed of institutions which are at different levels and belong to different sectors. To formulate unified work standards and a general database for long-term storage of historical records and to make precise predictions and assessment of the status, dynamics and the developing trends in soil erosion.

Activities

16.28 To strengthen management of water and soil conservation:

(a) To formulate a unified coordinated plan of water and soil conservation, including scientific research plans, population growth plans and unified development plans for agriculture, industry and trade in the areas with soil erosion by bringing together representatives of these ministries and relevant organizations;

(b) To establish and perfect a national system of supervision for water and soil conservation within the next 5 years;

(c) To improve the policy system with new policies such as: control work in the priority areas will take the form of collective contracts, household contracts or land leasing. Priority control will be combined with comprehensive control in small watersheds and with large-scale controlling as well as with the economic development in the related regions. A responsibility system based on unified planning and household operation will be set up in accordance with local conditions;

(d) To introduce market economy mechanisms, provide social service for water and soil conservation and solidify control achievements;

(e) To set up supervision areas and prepare a system of rewards and penalties for water and soil conservation;

(f) To strengthen the macro-management of water and soil conservation by the central government. Ensure the superior management of use of special funds and enhance the benefits of investments. Increased investment by individuals should be encouraged actively;

(g) To carry out seriously "The Law on Water and Soil Conservation in the People's Republic of China" and "The regulations regarding the law on water and soil conservation in the People's Republic of China".

16.29 Preferential investment policies should be formulated in accordance with actual conditions in China in order to attract domestic and foreign scientists, enterprises and businessmen to conduct research on water and soil conservation and to exploit the resources in key areas for different types of soil erosion in China. Study groups will be organized to conduct on-the-spot investigations and specialists will be sent abroad, foreign advanced technologies should be experienced, demonstrated and popularized with certain aims in China.

16.30 To develop scientific researches and build an information network for soil erosion:

(a) The key research project for regulating soil erosion will be conducted by organizing 20-30 key field test stations led by "The State Key Laboratory on Soil Erosion and Dry Farming" through a unified plan, a unified program and a common executive standard; otherwise, the key research project for combating desertification caused by water erosion will be conducted by establishing "Research Center on Land Degradation in Hilly and Mountain Regions of Southern China";

(b) Because of the different jurisdictions of the institutions which make up a information network, the national water and soil conservation information network will be a multi-level organization. Its grassroots level will be composed of water and soil conservation test stations, hydrologic stations in the comprehensive controlling experimental areas, county water and soil conservation stations, commanding headquarters in small watersheds, forest stations and grassland stations. The second level has the superior authority over the grassroots units and is composed of colleges, universities, water and soil conservation research institutes, river administrative organs and water and soil conservation bureaus or offices. In light of the vast territory and different regional characteristics in the north and the south, the third level consists of the North and the South Divisions of the Scientific and Technological Information System on Water and Soil Conservation. While the fourth level is the National Center of Scientific and Technological Information System for Water and Soil Conservation, which is composed of the departments concerned.

16.31 To strengthen scientific and technological means of water and soil conservation:

(a) The research in the field of technical and economic policies for water and soil conservation will mainly focus on analyzing and studying the social and economic characteristics of water and soil conservation, which would be experimented demonstrated and popularized;

(b) To establish and popularize policies and systems for exchange and disseminating of information free or at cost;

(c) To help local people set up enterprises covering agriculture, industry and business in an integrated fashion.

16.32 To publicize the experiences of the 10,000 existing comprehensive control demonstrative programs in small watersheds. To set up demonstration programs for water and soil conservation related to industry, mines and communications.

16.33 The existing scientific and technical water and soil conservation teams built up over more than four decades should play a full role. Officers, staff, technicians, supervisors and managers presently engaged in water and soil conservation should be trained in order to enhance their capacity for work and the ability to implement policies.

16.34 To carefully summarize Chinese practical experience on water and soil conservation and absorb foreign advanced thoughts and technology. To actively popularize science and use education to bring about mass awareness of policies and their scientific and cultural attributes.

D. Construction and Management of Ecological Engineering for Soil Conservation

Basis for action

16.35 Rebuilding ecosystems by mainly using biological measures. In areas suffering from severe soil erosion and ecological deterioration biological measures will be combined with engineering measures. Reclamation refers to large-scale restoration of vegetation and the rebuilding of degraded ecosystems by using ecological principles and engineering techniques.

16.36 There are several large zones of soil erosion such as Yellow River Basin, Songliao River Basin, Haihe River Basin, Yangtze River Basin; Pearl River Basin, Huaihe River Basin and the coastal areas which have become serious obstacles to the sustainable development of China. It is imperative to undertake large-scale reclamation of degraded ecosystems in order to control soil erosion in these areas. The area of water erosion in the middle reaches of Yellow River accounts for 79% of total basin's area, in which erosive modules is 3000 t/km2.yr, the gully density is 1.3-8.1km/km2. The area of water erosion in Haihe River Basin is 50% of total basin's area, in which erosive modules is 1000-10000 km/km2.yr. Because of impact of soil erosion, there are several problems such as poverty, silted up reservoir and waterways, and poor soil, etc.

16.37 The large shelter-belt forest systems in "Triple North Regions"(Northeast, North and Northwest of China), the middle and upper reaches of Yangtze River, coastal areas, and farming areas in plains, and Taihangshang Mountain, etc. have been established since 1978. The purpose of establishing shelter-belt forests is to increase vegetation coverage and improve ecological conditions. Now remarkable ecological, social and economic benefits have been observed in these areas.

Objectives

16.38 To continue building the large shelter-belt forest systems in "Triple North Regions" and controlling the soil erosion in Yellow River Basin. Before the year 2000, the area of shelter-belts forest will be 21.77 million hectares, the 4.5 million hectares of soil erosion will be under control in Yellow River Basin. By the year 2001-2050, the area of shelter-belts forest will be up to 13.3 million hectares, and by the year 2001-2010, the controlled area in Yellow River Basin will be up to 7.50 million hectares.

16.39 To build shelter-belt forest systems in the middle and upper reaches of Yangtze River Basin. Before the year 2000, the area of shelter-belt forest will be 6.66 million hectares, and in the same time, 5.60 million hectares of soil erosion will be under control. By the year 2001-2010, the shelter-belt forest area of 13.33 million hectares will be further completed, moreover, 9.0 million hectares of soil erosion will be under control.

16.40 To control soil erosion in the Songliao River Basin. Before the year 2000, the controlled area of soil erosion will be 3.00 million hectares. By the year 2001-2010, the controlled area will be 5.00 million hectares.

16.41 To control soil erosion in Taihangshang Mountain and Haihe River Basin. Before the year 2000, the area of afforestation will be 2.71 million hectares, and the areas with controlled soil erosion will be 2 million hectares. By the year 2001-2010,the controlled area of soil erosion will be 2.20 million hectares.

16.42 To control soil erosion in Huaihe River Basin. Before the year 2000, the controlled area of soil erosion will be 1.40 million hectares. The area of afforestation in Taihu Lake Basin and Huaihe River Basin will be 1.05 million hectares. By the year 2001-2010, the controlled area will be 2.20 million hectares.

16.43 To afforest the Pearl River Basin. Before the year 2000, the area of shelter-belt forest will be 1.20 million hectares, the controlled area of soil erosion will be 1.10 million hectares. By the year 2001- 2010, the controlled area will be 1.90 million hectares.

16.44 To build shelter-belt forests in coastal areas. Before the year 2000, the area of afforestation will be 2.46 million hectares. By the year 2001-2010, the area of afforestation will be 1.08 million hectares.

Activities

16.45 To strengthen integrated management of ecological engineering:

(a) To establish a Center for managing shelter-belt forest systems, and strengthen the management for shelter-belt forest systems;

(b) To strengthen plans for the restoration of vegetation and incorporate the planting of forest systems with the overall afforestation plan;

(c) To establish a responsibility system of objectives for every leader during his tenure of office and management responsibility systems for reclamation;

(d) To strengthen key projects, make good production plans before afforestation and examine, check and accept afforestation in order to ensure the quality of afforestation;

(e) To strengthen the management and the protection of forests after afforestation;

(f) To charge fees for developing forest resources for the beneficiary units or sectors according to the value and size of benefits received from afforestation. These fees will be used to establish an afforestation fund for further afforestation;

(g) To conduct supporting policies. To encourage individuals and units to contract for afforestation or making wild mountains and slopes green that are now suffering from serious soil erosion, while conducting preferential loan and taxation policies;

(h) To manage forests through laws and improving existing laws and regulations. To strictly enforce "The law on water and soil conservation" and strengthen popularization and education of legal system. Meanwhile, the three management systems of forest fire prevention, pest prevention and prevention of illegal lumbering should be established and improved in the areas of the shelter-belt forest. To formulate practical management measures so that forest management becomes standardized and institutionalized.

16.46 Data and information:

(a) To establish monitoring systems for forest resources in every area of soil erosion and strengthen protection and management of existing forest resources;

(b) To operate an accounting and reporting system for reclamation, establish archives of soil erosion areas, and devote efforts to realizing a micro-computerized management of the inventories of resources at county level and developing such a network;

(c) To do careful examination, acceptance and assessment of afforestation every year. Relative data and information should be stored in computers. The database and the information network should be established in areas of soil erosion;

(d) To take before and after aerial photographs of afforestation in key projects and experimental demonstrative regions for the purpose of comparison and analysis.

16.47 To actively develop international exchanges and cooperation. To seek financial assistance from the international community in establishing a management Center for the protection of water and soil and the prevention and treatment of crop diseases. This center will also be responsible for setting up an ecological demonstration project for water and soil conservation, for the development of high quality seed varieties to be used for forest cultivation and personnel training.

16.48 To strengthen scientific research, to publish scientific and technical findings and to provide technical services:

(a) Publicizing advanced and practical technical measures for water and soil conservation, for example, biological flatland on slopes, biological field ridges, contour cultivation, level ditch tillage, terraces and silt arrester, etc.;

(b) To establish a technical service system and develop technical consultation, technical contracts and technical services;

(c) To organize major research programs to overcome technological difficulties such as the selection of fine and suitable tree varieties, seedling-raising, cultivation techniques, the control of forest pests and techniques for planting trees in special regions;

(d) To raise the competence of management by using modern technological means;

(e) To build demonstrative projects of scientific research and technical popularization.

16.49 Strengthening development of human resources. Having been supported by forestry universities and research institutes, technical cadres and managers should be trained on a large-scale and peasant technicians should be trained repeatedly. Strengthen fostering of specialists in water and soil conservation in universities and colleges and select outstanding technical staff members to go abroad for study and survey. Organize the rural surplus labor force by setting up afforestation teams on a contract basis.

16.50 To strengthen capacity building, including the constructions of forest projects, it should be recognized that a main part is labor input by the people and a complementary part is from the state financial support and funds would be raised by several channels and levels. Improve policies and management and attract masses to take part in developing forestry. Spread propaganda and education among masses in order to raise the environmental consciousness of the public for taking part in developing forestry.