INTRODUCTION

14.1 Natural resources are an important material basis for a stable national economy and social development. They can be divided into two categories: the exhaustible, such as minerals, and the inexhaustible, such as forests and grasslands. With industrialization and urbanization, mankind's great demand for natural resources and their large scale exploitation and consumption has resulted in the weakening, deterioration and exhaustion of these resources. One difficult task faced by all countries is to guarantee the lasting utilization of natural resources at the lowest possible environmental cost while still assuring economic and social development. China with its large population and poor economic foundation is engaged in a process of increased urbanization and industrialization. Its natural resources are relatively inadequate and the per capita Gross National Product (GNP) is still lagging behind that of most of the world. The traditional mode of resource consuming development and the current inefficient economy are severely threatening the lasting utilization of natural resources. Therefore, the strategy of choice is to attain economic development at a rate above the world's average while sustaining a continuous increase in growth at relatively low resource and social costs. This is a strategic alternative for sustainable development with Chinese characteristics.

14.2 At the present time China is confronted with tough challenges with respect to the sustainable use and conservation of important natural resources. These challenges involve two aspects. Firstly, the per capita resource of China is relatively insignificant. In 1989 the per capita fresh water, cultivated land, forest and grassland of China comprised 28.1%, 32.3%, 14.3% and 32.3% of the world's average, respectively, while the per capita resources figures and ecological quality are still declining or deteriorating. Secondly, the increasing shortage of natural resources, inter alia the shortage of water resources in North China, nationwide shortage of cultivated land and soil degeneration, resulted from the surging population and more-than-adequate dependence of economic development on resources, will become an important constraint to the sustainable, rapid and healthy development of society and economy of China. It is estimated that more than three hundred cities are water-deficient with a total daily water shortage amounting to over 16 million metric tonnes. Shortage of irrigational water has resulted in a yearly reduction of crops output of over 2.5 million tonnes, thus exerting serious impact on industrial production, agriculture and people's daily life. In this respect the sustainable use of water resources is the most pressing problem among those concerning the conservation and sustainable use of all natural resources.

14.3 The primary problems pending, with respect to the utilization and protection of natural resources in China are:

(a) Lack of effective mechanisms for the comprehensive management of resources as well as for incorporating the accounting for natural resources into the national economic accounting system, while concurrently, the traditional mode of natural resource management and its legislative system are facing the challenge of the market-oriented economy;

(b) Economic development which is traditionally unduly dependent upon the sole input of resources and energy, and is accompanied by massive extravagance of resources and outflow of pollutants without consideration for the relation between the excessive exploitation and use of resources and deterioration of natural environment;

(c) Distribution of the natural resources by means of administrative intervention which seriously hinders the effective allocation of resources, the establishment of a resource property system and the creation of a resource market;

(d) An irrational resource pricing methodology contributing to severely misrepresenting the market price of resources, which has resulted in devaluing resources, depressing prices of resources and the excessive expansion of the demand for resources;

(e) Lack of an effective mechanism for analyzing the natural resource policy as well as the supporting information for decision-making, inter alia a lack of multisectoral analysis of policy and sharing of information which can provoke divergence in policy goals between and among various departments and can lead to a negative impact;

(f) Lack of coordinated and consistent management mechanism and organization has resulted in a decentralized system for resources management.

14.4 To ensure that the limited natural resources will satisfy the demand of sustained high speed economic development, China's policies are:

(a) To protect and make economical and appropriate use of resources;

(b) To be engaged in both discovering new resources and in using existing natural resources economically. China must depend on technological progress to tap its resource potential, make full use of the market economy and economic means to achieve effective resources distribution, and insist on efficiency in the utilization of resources and resource intensive economic development;

(c) To implement the development and protection of resources in conjunction with economic construction in order to illustrate the principle of integrating economic and social effects with environmental benefits for the protection and sustainable utilization of natural resources.

14.5 This chapter is concerned with five types of natural resources: land, forest, water, minerals and grassland. The general objectives of this chapter are to realize the mode and channel for conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources, such as to summarize the existing problems in China's exploitation, utilization and protection of the six major natural resources, and to present the project areas for protection and rational use of six major resources.

14.6 Some of the issues are also discussed in other chapters due to the broad nature of natural resource protection. The prevention of soil erosion, flood prevention and management, marine life protection, the exploitation of oil and marine power resources, water usage development in the rural areas, and the lasting utilization of rural land resources are examined, respectively, in Chapters 4, 11, 13, 15, 16 and 17. The implementation of projects in these chapters together with related program areas listed in Chapters 6,7,8 and 10 will aid in the realization of the projects and goals presented in this chapter.

14.7 The program areas in the present chapter are:

PROGRAM AREAS

A. Establishing the Natural Resource Management System Based on the Market Mechanisms and Government Macroeconomic Control

Basis for action

14.8 China has formulated and promulgated many laws and regulations aimed at the rational utilization and protection of natural resources. However, very serious problems exist related to the degeneration of natural resources and environmental deterioration. With the continuation of economic reform and the emergence of multitudinous small enterprises and other economic agents which have never existed before, the enforcement of these laws and regulations poses a severe challenge to the market economy. To implement the required sustainable development, the government which is likely to reinforce and amend existing regulations, will take advantage of the economic policy including market incentive means to make the market mechanism play a prominent role in the transformation of ideas and methods for utilization of natural resources.

14.9 In China the natural resources predominantly belong to the state. Confusion between the ownership and the rights for the exploitation and handling of resources and lack of clear guidelines defining the economic relations between the central government, the local government and various economic entities have resulted in the irrational allocation of natural resources and low efficiency in the exploitation and utilization of resources. With the deepening of economic reform and development of the market economy, the state has provided private enterprises access to the exploitation of natural resources through a responsibility system or other means. Establishing a natural resource management system based on the market mechanisms in conjunction with the adjustment by the government is being accelerated.

Objectives

14.10 The main objective of this program area is to improve the natural resources management system. The specific objectives are:

(a) To identify the roles to be played by the central government, enterprises and individuals with respect to the ownership, obligations and rights over the use and handling of natural resources;

(b) To introduce a market mechanism for the use and allocation of natural resources which would follow the economic principle "the user pays" to facilitate the effective exploitation of resources in favor of the environment;

(c) To define and improve the role of planning at the national and regional, as well as trans- sectoral levels in the utilization and protection of resources geared to meet the objectives of economic development and current measures of economic reform;

(d) To rectify the existing laws and management system concerning the management and protection of natural resources, following the principle of reinforcing the market economy;

(e) To use economic measures and to a greater extent the market incentives as important supplements to legislation in order to assure the macroeconomic adjustment being undertaken by the government for regulating the market and for rectifying the gyration of pricing policies.

Activities

14.11 The activities for reinforcing the basic role of the market mechanism in the natural resource management are:

(a) To establish and improve a system of property rights for natural resources which requires the separation of ownership from the rights on exploitation, repayable use and transfer of resources;

(b) To develop and establish effective and comprehensive planning and management methods for those organizations or institutions responsible for the management of natural resources;

(c) To adjust the existing economic measures and financial incentives including the resource taxes and subsidies for compensation to ecological environment to meet the objectives of sustainable development;

(d) To encourage the development of a new market eligible for the sustainable and effective utilization of natural resources to facilitate the development of the sustainable resource industry;

(e) To encourage, study and adopt techniques for risk assessment, resource pricing and exploitation which are favorable to the environment;

(f) To carry out market economy incentives for more efficient control over the natural resources along with measures assuring an equitable distribution of resources for the whole society;

(g) To establish a system for continuous monitoring of natural resources by the government and social groups, in order to encourage public participation in the activities aimed at the sustainable development of natural resources;

(h) To establish sectoral and regional mechanisms for the planning and distribution of natural resources, inter alia a medium and long term mechanism for the distribution of resources;

(i) The government will develop and implement a family contracting and responsibility system in the areas of exploitation and protection of the natural resources other than agriculture for encouraging family creativity and income generation;

(j) To set up a mechanism for the coordination or elimination of discrepancies arising during the implementation of some policies related to the utilization of natural resources.

14.12 The activities of the government in the area of macroeconomic adjustment are:

(a) To establish a natural resource management system which is suited to the market economy;

(b) To organize comprehensive investigation, exploration, planning and utilization of natural resources, and to carry out unified planning including the Five-Year Plan and the medium and long-term plans for the management of important resources depending on their scarcity, and the policies governing their use;

(c) To establish a physical account and an account based on the magnitude of value for a variety of natural resources in order to support the creation of an integrated valuing and accounting system (see the program area D of Chapter 4) to supplement or improve the existing economic accounting system;

(d) To allow the exchange of licensing agreements and responsibility for exploitation of resources under the direction or control of the central government except those scarce resources which should be kept under special control;

(e) To gradually abolish those pricing policies which are unfavorable to the sustainable utilization of natural resources and rational use of environmental resources, such as the policy which provides subsidies for deforestation, which are at a level much lower than their production costs, non-repayable exploitation of mineral resources and subsidies to the prices for water and energy;

(f) To formulate and implement as fast as possible the Act for Comprehensive Utilization of Resources and its enacting terms to bring the comprehensive exploitation and utilization of natural resources into line with the legislative system.

14.13 The activities for upgrading the collection of data and information are:

(a) To establish an information system related to the management, protection and rational utilization of natural resources, under the direction of the government and in collaboration with the international organizations, enterprises and research institutions;

(b) To strengthen the analysis, collection and systematic evaluation of materials concerning the environmental, economic, social and legislative aspects of the natural resources at the global, regional, national and local levels;

(c) To set up a mechanism for the coordination and sharing, between the relevant departments, of existing data and information for natural resource management in order to reinforce the capability of the state in data collection, processing and evaluation;

(d) To provide in a simple and clear way to people from all walks of life the appropriate techniques and economic information suited for activities of policy making concerning the exploitation of resources;

(e) To support and encourage the building of low cost local data and information systems applicable to natural resources.

14.14 International and regional cooperation. The Chinese government and its relevant departments with the support of the regional and international organizations are poised to reinforce at the appropriate level, regional cooperation and exchange of materials concerning the management and protection of natural resources. The specific activities are:

(a) To establish a stable relationship with the relevant agencies under the United Nations (UNESCO, FAO, UNEP, UNDP, WMO and WHO);

(b) To set up plans for materials exchange and personnel training and cooperation with the related countries and non-governmental organizations;

(c) To study the possibility of establishing a relationship in research and development with the related countries and non-governmental organizations for joint investigation of methods and systems for management of natural resources.

B. Implementing the Sustainable Development Impact Assessment System in the Decision-making for Natural Resource Management

Basis for action

14.15 The sustainable development of natural resources requires not only the determination and implementation of an optimal policy based on a wide range of information, and the efficient operation and management of natural resources in an integrated and sustained way, but also dictates the creation of a policy analysis mechanism which is capable of evaluating and adjusting the current or future policies to determine the positive or negative influence of these policies on the overall sustainable development of China. Sustainable Development Impact Assessments (SDIA) can partially integrate the cost- effectiveness analyses to assist policy-makers in evaluating their policy options and the impact of relevant policies on the utilization of other kinds of natural resources or other economic policies.

14.16 Sustainable development is a dynamic process and necessitates continual adjustments to cope with changes in the economy and environment. The adoption of the SDIA will lead to the emergence of an important mechanism, through which fruitful policies will emerge in place of those characterized as having negative effects.

14.17 In the past, China has evaluated the environmental impact of resource exploitation projects, but has not integrated these evaluations into the relevant policies and programs of the national economy. The implementation of the SDIA for natural resources can facilitate the socioeconomic development of a region or the whole nation and aid in more readily embracing the strategy of sustainable development.

Objectives

14.18 The main objectives are to incrementally introduce the SDIA while formulating the related policies, plans and development projects for natural resource management, to disseminate and implement the SDIA in the form of legislation, and by means of the SDIA to conduct planning and cost-effectiveness analysis of the policy for protection and management of natural resources.

Activities

14.19 The chief management and research activities on sustainable development impact are:

(a) To design and adopt a system of sustainable development indices including the method for their determination, and to develop a SDIA model and a computer system;

(b) To develop guidelines for SDIA and management programs dealing with the evaluation of policies, programs and exploitation activities for important natural resources;

(c) To incrementally adopt the SDIA in coordination with formulating the policy options and programs at national, regional and local levels;

(d) To conduct the SDIA with respect to the existing subsidy policies, such as subsidies for coal, water resources, pesticides, chemical fertilizers and energy;

(e) To draft a technical directory for application of the SDIA to the cost-effectiveness analysis of policies relating to the economic sectors and natural resource areas;

(f) To improve the existing system of environmental impact evaluation and cost-effectiveness analysis and to explore the feasibility of their integration into the SDIA.

14.20 The capacity building activities are:

(a) To conduct training for all officials responsible for the implementation of the SDIA in the methods of multi-sectoral management of natural resources as well as the fundamentals of integrated management for various branches;

(b) To conduct training of the policy makers to assist them in using these measures in the process of drafting policy.

14.21 International cooperation and assistance should include:

(a) Gaining support from the relevant agencies of the United Nations such as UNEP and UNDP, and the World Bank as well as non-governmental organizations, including their assistance in establishing the related organizations;

(b) The cooperation and exchange of achievements in the previously described research activities with the international organizations and related countries to facilitate the overseas training of technical personnel;

(c) The introduction to China and adoption of the overseas research achievements and experience in the relevant areas and concurrently the dissemination of the China's expertise and methodology to other developing countries.]

C. Protection and Utilization of Water Resources

Basis for action

14.22 At present, the per capita fresh water reserve in China is only 2,500 cubic meters, which is about one-fourth of the world's average. With the increase in population and economic development, more and more cities are facing serious water shortages. The bulk of China's water supply projects were completed during the 1950s and the 1960s, and their supply capacity declined. A long-term plan for water supply must be directed at the reasonable development and protection of water resources, and relieving the bottleneck effect of water shortage to socioeconomic activities. How to solve the continuing water shortage in North China, East Jiaozhou Peninsular, mid-South Liaoning, Northwest China and many coastal cities has become a strategic problem arising before the central government.

14.23 The total amount of water resources is not small, but the per capita water resources are not significant and vary with time and location. Generally speaking, the South is rich in water while the North is short of water, and it is quite difficult to construct water development and utilization projects. The degree of water utilization deepens with locations from the South to the North. In forty-four years after the establishment of the People's Republic of China a large number of water development and utilization projects have been accomplished with a total amount of water supplied by water conservancy projects topping 500 billion cubic meters per annum. However, agriculture and cities are urgently in need of water. The annual water shortage for agriculture totals thirty billion cubic meters with a total acreage of twenty million hectares being drought-hit. The actual area of irrigated land amounts to mere 48.7 million hectares. In addition, eighty million people in rural areas still have problems with their drinking water. Three hundred cities in China are water-deficient. The water deficiency in cities is divided into four categories, i.e. the resource-limited, the engineering induced, the pollution triggered and the water facility constrained, and water shortage due to the first three categories accounts for over 70% of total water shortage in cities.

14.24 At present, the fresh water supply in most of China's cities is threatened by the deterioration of water quality and the destruction of water ecosystem. Almost 80 percent of the country's wastewater is discharged directly into rivers. This has caused high pollution levels in more than one-third of the country's rivers and in the water area of over 90 percent of all cities. The water sources in more than 50 percent of China's major towns are not suitable for drinking. Water ecosystems have been severely impacted, and health of aquatic life, especially fishery resources, is threatened by large-scale reclamation of marshes, inappropriate application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, and soil erosion. Statistics show that the length of rivers void of fish and shrimp totals 2,400 kilometers, and the number of lakes has decreased by 543 over a thirty year period, and a part of the remaining lakes are eutrophic. The loss in fresh water fish yield caused by the destruction of water ecosystem has reached eighty thousand tonnes annually. Protection of water quality and the water ecological environment must be implemented without delay.

14.25 In 1990 China's urban population was about 26 percent of the country's total. It is estimated that by 2000 the urban population will reach 460 million, which is about 35 percent of the country's total. The fast growth of urban populations and industrialization are putting increasing pressure on the water resources and environmental protection in many cities. Over three hundred water needy cities are lacking daily 16 million cubic meters of water. In southern cities, pollution causes 60 to 70 percent of the total shortage. Water shortages are especially felt in northern and coastal cities. As estimated according to current rate of economic growth, water shortage in cities by the year 2000 will exceed twenty billion cubic meters annually. Population growth, the drainage of industrial wastewater and over exploitation of water resources will threaten the ocean environment and the supply of fresh water.

14.26 Groundwater is an important source of China's urban and industrial as well as agricultural water supply. About two-thirds of China's cities and one-fourth of its agricultural fields depend on groundwater as the main irrigation source. Agriculture accounts for 81 percent of the total groundwater utilization volume. At present, there are many problems existing with groundwater development and protection, among them are inadequate planning and management, over exploitation, continuous lowering of the groundwater level, continuous increase of funnel structure area, and the general pollution of urban subterranean water. These problems directly affect the sustainable utilization and protection of the groundwater resources. To undo such effects and threats, a long-term groundwater utilization strategy must be adopted.

14.27 According to statistics, of the twelve hundred rivers presently monitored, 850 are severely polluted, and some major lakes are in various phases of eutrophication, and coastal areas are hit by seawater intrusion. Generally speaking, water quality in China is getting worse, being aggravated by the contradiction between water supply and demand. Severe water pollution and water shortages have become the two main obstacles in China's lasting utilization of water resources. While water cannot be substituted, it can be cleaned by natural filtration and man-made filtration processes. Transforming urban wastewater into a useable water resource will reduce pressures between water supply and demand, and reduce water pollution. In fact, the treatment of wastewater is an important measure for enabling long- term water utilization and should be improved and disseminated.

14.28 The water resources shortage or deficiency problem will exist in the long run. The yearly demand of water based on a expected fourfold GNP growth in China by 2000 will reach 600 million cubic meters, if conservation and rational use of water could take effect and a medium-drought weather would prevail. If the water demand in the first decade of the 21st century is estimated to increase by 2- 3% annually, the total water demand in 2010 will hit a high of 720 million cubic meters, which means that the increment of water demand in ten years will comprise over 100 billion cubic meters. In the end it is necessary to increase the water supply capacity by 120 billion cubic meters before 2010.

14.29 By the turn of century, the North China, Shandong, the Northwest China, the mid-South Liaoning and dozens of coastal cities will be acutely hit by fresh water deficiency. The economic and social development of water needy regions will be increasingly jeopardized by water shortage which will especially affect irrigation in North China, industrial use of water for energy base in Shanxi and the water supply in the mid-South Liaoning and the Shandong Peninsular.

14.30 Global climatic changes may have a lasting impact on China's water resources as evidenced by a twenty-year dry season of the northern rivers, the continued increase of rainfall plaguing the southern rivers, and high frequency of droughts and floods all over the country. It is predicted that the incremental rise in China's sea level is roughly the same as the global average. The rising sea level will lead to increased intrusion of saline water into the water supplies of coastal cities, small islands, and will severely affect the ecological environment and economic development of the low-lying areas on the river delta.

14.31 The water resource management system, formed under the traditional system, hinders the effective development and protection of water resources. One river system is often artificially divided into sections and has more than one management agency. Such a system can hardly realize the unified and appropriate distribution of water resources, and has led to water related disputes between governmental departments, regions and the upstream and downstream sections in the same river system. Traditional water management systems can no longer meet the requirements of the market economy. Thus the reform of the water management system must be carried out soon, and at the same time the function of the management agency must be strengthened.

14.32 The development and protection of water resources is a complicated matter involving various types of waters, departments and domains of science. This program is mainly concerned with the following seven factors:

(a) Long-term planning of water supply and demand and water resources appraisal;

(b) Protection of water resources, water quality and the water ecosystem;

(c) Sustainable utilization and protection of underground water resources;

(d) Guarantee of water for urban living and industrial usage;

(e) Water pollution control and the reclamation of waste water;

(f) The effects of climatic changes on the water resources and the corresponding strategies;

(g) The reform of the water resource management system and the development of its capability.

Objectives

14.33 The overall goal for the development and protection of water resources is to combine the development and utilization of water resources with a full-scale saving of water to alleviate water supply crisis in cities and countryside to maximize the economic, social, and environmental benefits to be obtained from utilization of water resources. Furthermore, to satisfy the increasing demand for a greater quantity and quality of water which results from socioeconomic development of the society. It is also important to protect the natural functions of water resources in relation to hydrology, biology and chemistry, and adjust human activities to within the limits of nature, and synchronize economic construction and water resources protection. Specific objectives are as follows:

(a) The goal of long-term planning for water supply and demand and the appraisal of water resources, is to meet China's demands for water and assure continued development especially in regions lacking water. Supply and demand planning should take into account national economic and social development as well as the management of state lands. Long-term supply and demand planning must be based on the management of drainage areas and water resources appraisal and must be included in the state and local development program. Long-term water supply and demand planning should be included into development programs at national and local levels and should function as a basis for action by the state and local governments, and should be practical and consistent. Supply and demand planning demands expertise in the techniques of water resources appraisal, as well as funds, manpower, and organizations to use this expertise;

(b) China shall work to devise preliminary solutions to the problem of pollution of drinking water sources and water systems in scenic spots by the year of 2000, and improve the functions of rivers, lakes and reservoirs to state standards. Groundwater used as urban drinking water sources should meet the state's quality standard. In rural areas, the centralized supply of potable water will be gradually increased, at the same time reducing the incidence of water related diseases, and preventing further degeneration of the water supply. The goal after the year 2000 will be the realization of the benign circulation of water resources and water ecosystem;

(c) In an effort to achieve sustainable usage and protection of water resources China will continue to utilize clean groundwater and at the same time work through effective management and replenishment technique to control the spread of groundwater pollution in over exploited areas by the year 2000. Furthermore, China will complete legislation to put groundwater resources under legal protection for rational exploitation and conservation of groundwater resources;

(d) China will work to bring the tap water popularization rate to 95 percent in 108 cities now having insufficient water supplies, by the year 2000. The government will also work to reverse the deterioration and exhaustion of water resources through the protection of water sources and water environment. After year 2000, following the completion of large-scale water transferring projects and water source projects, domestic and industrial water usage in all cities will be ensured, and continued benign circulation of water in these cities will be realized;

(e) Surface water and groundwater sources in centralized water supply networks will be divided into protection areas by 2000. Over 80 percent of the surface water sources will attain quality level B, and at least 75 percent of the groundwater sources will reach the national standards. The environmental quality of major water bodies in China will be improved to some extent. Before 2000 the control over total pollutant discharges will keep major rivers and lakes (the Yangtze River, the Huaihe River, the Yellow River, the Pearl River, the Songhua River, the Taihu Lake, the Puyang Lake and the Dongting Lake) at quality level B, while the water quality of other heavily polluted rivers and lakes will be maintained at level C with deterioration of water quality being controlled to a greater or lesser extent. The water quality of all drinking water sources will reach these standards in 2010. By the year 2000, 20 to 30 percent of sanitary sewage and 84 percent of industrial waste water will be treated, and the regeneration rate of urban waste water will amount to 10 percent of the treated volume. By 2010, the treated volume is expected to be 40 to 50 percent, and the regeneration rate of in water-needy cities will reach 30 to 40 percent;

(f) To increase the reserve strength of agricultural development, the overall irrigated land area will increase from the present 48.7 million hectares to 53.3 million hectares by 2000. The water shortage will soar from 30 billion cubic meters at present to 40-60 billion cubic meters annually in the future. The construction of farmland irrigation projects, medium and small reservoirs, and water transfer and lift projects will make a incremental water supply of 30 to 50 billion cubic meters per annum. In the meantime, dissemination of water-saving irrigative technique such as watering through low-pressure pipelines, spraying, trickling and micro-sprinkling along with leveling of land and increase of utilization coefficient in canal systems will lead to a saving of irrigative water totaling eight to ten billion cubic meters while the irrigation of 53.3 million hectares of land will be guaranteed.

(g) China, to adapt itself to the impact of water resource availability resulted from climate changes, shall design appropriate strategies for the forecast and control of the influence of climatic changes on water resources, and adopt effective measures to reduce the negative effects. At the same time, study the potential influence the climatic changes have over regions with high drought and flood concentration, and discover means of control;

(h) China will reform the existing management system for water resources, pass new legislation and establish economic systems to promote the integrated planning and management, and to maximize development and protection of water resources for industry, urban development, hydropower generating, inland fishery, transportation, entertainment and maintenance of ecological balance. China will also work to improve the competence of management and technical personnel, and promote public participation in the integrated management of water resources.

Activities

14.34 Activities of utilization, protection and management of water resources include:

(a) China will work to perfect the management system and regulations of long-term water supply and demand planning at both the state and local levels. Advanced technology and methods will be adopted to create purposeful action including investment plans (increase of water supply, conservation, management and emergency plans) complete with cost evaluations. China will unify measures in the protection of potential fresh water sources through exploration, land use control, development of forest resources and protection of hillside and river banks and provide effective distribution of water resources through demand and supply regulation and pricing such as licenses for water supply, effective distribution of water resources in needy drainage basins. The public will be made aware, through media and education, of the importance of water resources, and will be encouraged to participate, especially women, in water conservation, planning and managing, water resources appraisal and other related activities;

(b) To ensure protection of water resources the entire drainage area must be treated and managed as a complete system. China will set up a system of quality standards for all waters based on the foundations of biology, hygiene, physics and chemistry. China will implement and promote activities in fisheries, aquatic farming and agriculture that reduce negative impact on fresh water ecosystems. China will complete and improve its monitoring network in water source reserves and other water sources. Discharge of urban wastewater and pollution caused by fertilizer and pesticides in the rural area will be reduced. The efficiency in utilization of water resources and energy should be improved to reduce water consumption. In water saturated areas of the South and snail fever inflicted lowland areas, important drainage rivers should be dredged and drainage projects renovated to prevent the occurrence of oncomelania and the subsequent snail fever;

(c) China will examine the present over exploitation of groundwater resources and the results to apply better planning and management for the utilization of groundwater resources. China will speed up legislation in order to control regional and trans-regional development and protection of groundwater resources. China will define groundwater protection areas to promote artificial feeding replenishment. China will attempt to combine storage of surface and groundwater with the use of underground reservoirs, improve utilization of groundwater source, and reduce waste through pricing. China will carry out integrated management of surface and ground water according to the division of regions or drainage areas and issue regulations and set up technological standards related to the control of groundwater pollution. China will control groundwater pollution caused by industrial wastewater, solid waste and toxic pollutants;

(d) The Chinese government exercises unified management of the water resources within its jurisdiction according to the land utilization program, including water resources, and group interests. To figure out regulations for trans-regional control of water pollution, China will set up urban water source protection areas, and use associated benefit and costs to coordinate the relationship between upstream protection and downstream utilization. The government will set water usage quotas for all industries, implement a country-wide water quota program. Emphasis will be placed on accelerating adjustments in the industrial structure and layout, to encourage clean and water saving manufacturing processes, increase the re-utilization rate of water and cut down water consumption per unit of product. China will control industrial pollution and promote afforestation to enhance water quality and to protect water source reserves. Work will be done to promote public awareness regarding choices of water consumption modes and promoting public participation in the protection and conservation of water resources;

(e) The prevention and control of water contamination will be accomplished by drafting cross- boundary standard for water quality control in administrative districts, defining liability of administration for water pollution in its jurisdictional region and issuing waste drainage licenses in the functional divisions of water systems, water quality standards for water use, technical standards for production of water utilizing facilities, and time limits for drainage of pollutants. China will work to educate the public in the protection of drinking water sources, design a trans-regional protection program, and set deadlines for facilities that are pollution sources to improve or move out of major drainage areas. China will reinforce the monitoring of water quality and the legal supervision in the water sources reserves and gradually implement a reasonable system for pollution control in these reserves. China will map out plans for the treatment and utilization of waste water, set quality standards, devise the quality standard for water used for different industries, and deal with polluting enterprises in turn and by stages. About three thousand enterprises produce up to 65 percent of the country's total pollution load, six thousand accounts for 75 percent of the load, and nine thousand are responsible for 85 percent. Based on this data China will advocate for the establishment of enterprises specialized in the treatment, regeneration and re-utilization of waste water, to promote the environmental protection industry;

(f) China will examine and revise existing policies, laws, and regulations related to development and protection of water resources, while deleting those law terms and policy articles which are unfavorable to the integrated management of water resources. When revising policies, laws and regulations in regard to groundwater, all group interests will be taken into consideration. China will issue exploitation licenses and implement a distribution quota system at the local level to balance the supply and demand and gradually improve the environmental quality of water resources.

14.35 Scientific research and demonstration projects for the development and protection of water resources:

(a) China will undertake studies of water resources appraisal techniques, improve the existing environmental and hydrologic monitoring network, and add new monitoring stations for groundwater survey, water supply and water drainage. China will set up at all levels a water consumption accounting system as part of the state's data system. China will publish "The National Report on Water Resources" every year and carry on studies of applied scientific technologies in water resources appraisal, especially in the fields of hydrologic forecast, hydrologic survey and remote sensing;

(b) The study of water resources and protective demonstration projects will look at planting forests and soil stabilization shelter-belts in the upstream area of rivers, ban destructive reclamation in the middle and downstream lakes and cisterns, and protect the living environment for fish and other aquatic life. It will research and spread new technologies in the areas of water resource preservation, hydrologic ecology protection and water contamination prevention, and launch a number of large capacity water conservancy projects and projects to transfer water from one drainage area to another, and regain the hydrologic ecological balance;

(c) China will concentrate on the construction of urban water supply projects, speed up the construction of reservoirs and the research on projects for transferring water between different drainage areas. China will adopt measures of circulating water usage, multipurpose water usage and re-utilization of wastewater in urban factories, mines and other enterprises. China will select water saving model industries and model cities, research and spread the technology of waste water reclamation and encourage business operation of urban public water supply utilities. China will engage in research on the technology associated with the simplified water purification, energy-saving water purification and low-cost re-utilization of municipal sewage;

(d) China will develop and complete an information model of the hydrologic environment, including rivers, lakes, reservoirs and groundwater, at the national, provincial and municipal levels. China will devise a simple and practical water quality management program, innovate methods for overall control of pollutants, and practice wastewater regenerating techniques. China will develop technologies in pollution control of rivers, lakes and groundwater. China will set up demonstration projects for protection of different types of drinking water sources. China will set up demonstration projects for the control of polluted lakes, evolve techniques for damming polluted rivers, controlling flow, oxygenized aeration technique and the purification of large aquatic systems, and establish demonstration projects for recycling of industrial cooling water, low and medium-grade process water and surface water replenishment of water resources;

(e) China will complete a water survey system which employs new techniques to appraise the effects of the climatic changes over the water resources. China will assess the effects of climatic changes over flood concentration, the economy and environment. China will survey the effects of climatic changes over water resources, such as the influence of the greenhouse effect on urban flood concentration and flood prevention. China will promote research and spread the technology of light saline water irrigation and construct projects as well as adopt non-project measures in areas exposed to the climatic influence, and enhance research work on protection of pollution-free and non-eutrophic lakes (such as the Honghu Lake);

(f) China will construct large-scale key projects of development and protection of water resources, in order to promote trans-regional water distribution. An estimated ten to fifteen of such projects will be constructed before the year 2000. China will engage in research of substitutionary water sources, such as artificial replenishment of subterranean water, utilization of low quality or polluted water, and desalination of seawater. China will speed up construction of urban water supply projects and agricultural irrigation projects, and reinforce supervision, management and evaluation of environmental impact along with construction of water irrigation projects.

14.36 Activities of international and regional cooperation include:

(a) China will cooperate with neighbouring countries in the water resource assessment, and employ the advanced techniques and the experience of the developed countries in this field;

(b) China will carry out international cooperation in the protection of water resources, and through consultation, devise strategies and action plans for global, trans-national, nationwide and trans-regional protection of drinking water sources and the management of water resources;

(c) China will participate in cooperative research on techniques to be used in the fields of pollution control of drinking water sources, functional recovery of subsurface water, prevention of saline water intrusion, waste water treatment combining artificial and natural purification, and the co-exploitation and utilization of international rivers;

(d) China will adopt overseas planning and management mode for exploitation of water resources and employ successful foreign technology, experience and equipment in waste water regeneration and re-utilization, and set up various types of demonstration projects for waste water regeneration and utilization;

(e) China will participate in international cooperation and exchange for the training of technical personnel specialized in water resource management, water pollution control and remediation, as the personnel base for environmental protection enterprises;

(f) China will participate in international cooperation to study climatic changes and their influence over water resources, and train professionals in this field.

14.37 Activities of mechanism and capacity building including:

(a) China will work to improve the comprehensive management of water resources at the state level. At the regional level, China will work to perfect the existing water resources management system, and reinforce the regional rights in the development and protection of water resources, in particular, establish or complete a unified system for management of water resources with every drainage basin being regarded as an separate unit, realize unified control over exploitation, harnessing, conservation and utilization of surface water and groundwater in urban and rural regions, and create a coordinative mechanism responsible for dividing interests between relevant bodies for collaboration and protection of water resources within the reaches of river basin. When possible, the government will assign the authority to the municipal, prefecture and township governments according to relevant legislation to enable direct management of water resources. Under appropriate conditions the property right of water resources can be non-gratuitously transferred to realize business management;

(b) China will organize a water supervisory team to exercise unified supervision and management over water APE. China will reform the investment system of water APE, employ economic stimuli and pricing systems in water supply and demand management. China will develop a nationwide system for water resources conservation with the participation of experts and general public. Based on the existing information systems and observation means on the development, utilization and conservation of water resources in various sectors, a national information system on the comprehensive management of water resources will be developed and established in order to realize the modernization of management tools.

D. Management and Sustainable Development of Land Resources

Basis for action

14.38 The total area of China is 960 million hectares, among which the cultivated land, forest land, pasture, land for construction sites, waters and unexploited land account for 13.8%, 20.7%, 27.55%, 2.95%, 3.8% and 31.3% to the total, respectively, as revealed by the statistical survey of 1985. China is a hilly country with mountainous regions and hilly areas making up two-thirds of its territory, and it is also a populous country characterized by a shortage of arable land. The per capita acreage equals about 0.9 hectare while the per capita arable land comprises about 0.11 hectare, which equals only one-third of the world's average. In recent years cultivated land has been disappearing at a rate of several hundreds of thousands of hectares every year. The conflict between agricultural demand for land and that of urbanization and industrialization is becoming more and more significant. Excessive cultivation of grasslands, over-grazing, utilization of land by village and township enterprises, soil pollution and erosion and rapid urbanization have caused serious damage to and deterioration of land resources.

14.39 The land resources emerge on the market as an increasingly unsubstitutive factor of production in so far as the mechanism of market economy keeps running in China. With respect to the management of land resources, China is facing the problem of setting up and improving the market-oriented mechanism, policies and regulations and modernizing land management. It is necessary to help create the fundamental influence of market mechanism on allocation of land resources, and concurrently reinforce the logic intervention of the government to implement highly efficient, fair and sustainable utilization of land.

14.40 China has undertaken many national information surveys of land resources, and accumulated a large storage of information. Since the survey methodology, data management and renewal, and aid to policy-making have been lagging behind the world's advanced level, till now a complete and effective system for dynamic monitoring and management of land has not been formed. It is possible to afford the government with a practical and reliable basis for policy-making in land resources management. To reinforce the capacity building in land management, realize dynamic monitoring and modernize information management is a pressing item on the agenda.

14.41 Wetlands are a special land resource and fill a unique and valuable ecological niche. China has about 25 million hectares of wetland, of which, swamps and estuary marshes amount respectively to 11 million hectares and 2.1 million hectares. The protection of China's wetland has long been overlooked. These areas are frequently drained for cultivation, or rebuilt into fish or shrimp ponds, and sometimes are excavated and drained of water. In many areas wildlife is killed in large numbers, and the ecosystem shows an overall tendency of degeneration. In recent years signs of improvement have been seen, as specialized wetland reserves and other natural reserves containing wetland have been established. China has joined in 1992 "The International Convention on Important Wetlands in Particular Habitats for Water Poultry", but damage to the wetland still exists largely because of the delayed call for protection and lack of unified planning and management.

14.42 The program area H of this chapter refers to the sustainable utilization of grass resources. As for the sustainable use and conservation actions in respect to the arable land, inclines and other non- agricultural land resources please see the related program areas in Chapters 11 and 16.

Objectives

14.43 By the year 2000, a general program for land survey and utilization will be implemented at the national, provincial, regional, municipal and prefectural levels. Furthermore, China will work to clarify the general direction, goals and tasks of utilization; balance the demands for land; improve land utilization patterns; complete the information system for land management at different government levels; set up a network for land use monitoring; follow the dynamical changes in land conditions; and implement modernization of land management.

14.44 China will work to amend policies and legislation for land management suited to the mechanism of market economy, fully introduce non-gratuitous use of land, stepwise push the land use onto a market track, realize effective integrated control over development and utilization of large areas of land, conduct all-out harnessing of degenerated land, and enhance evaluation, integrated utilization and management of hilly land to raise the effectiveness of land use.

14.45 Legal enforcement and management bodies will be established at state and local levels to oversee the protection of wetland resources, improve scientific management, protect a group of the most important wetland resources and put an end to activities of destroying wetland resources and habitat at will. It is projected to set up one hundred diversified natural wetland reserves.

Activities

14.46 The integrated management of land resources:

(a) Management activities in the surveying, monitoring and planning of land resources. To strengthen the management of development and utilization planning for a large area, such as for agriculture, industry and urban housing, over a nationwide range. To strengthen the macro-management of neighbouring land development zones, through macro-assessment and evaluation of land resources, land usage, and impacts of land utilization and exploitation. Cultivated land shall be categorized and transformation of cultivated land into non-agricultural land will be controlled. Management and cooperation will be encouraged in land allocation for large scale construction projects and trans-regional land usage and in working out an overall program for land utilization at the province, region or municipality and prefecture levels. It is necessary to enhance survey of hilly land resources and undertake suitability assessment, formulate programs for sustainable use of land in mountainous areas, and establish model projects for sustainable development of hilly land to prevent natural disaster and reinforce integrated management of hilly land resources;

(b) The state's land management body and legislature will thoroughly examine and perfect the relevant requirements for land legislation and regulations, and draft laws and regulations for the land market and the non-gratuitous usage of land. Local governments should, with regard to the particulars of the local market, adopt regulations and measures that are functional under the market economy based on the state's relevant laws, and promote a number of land markets with their managing agencies. Local governments should complete the preparation of regulations for the land market, the transferring of land use rights and land registration and assets management, and launch general survey of basic land price to establish a fundamental land pricing system applicable to various districts in China. Furthermore, local governments should establish organizations to evaluate land investment profitability at both region or municipality, and prefecture levels, regulate the land market and unify the urban and rural land markets. Land management bodies at the municipality and prefecture levels will have to complete the overall planning of land utilization, and design land utilization programs including urban housing, public land usage, land for industrial and agricultural purposes, and special reserves.

14.47 The following steps will be taken to complete modernization of information management for land resources:

(a) China will establish a land information management body to establish regulations and technical codes for land information collection, processing and use, and to exercise a market type operation and management of land information;

(b) Land information management systems and databases will be established at the state and provincial levels;

(c) China will establish a land registration system in large and medium size cities in all economically developed regions, and develop market information management system for land resources and an expert system for resources, which must be paid for by the user;

(d) Land management professionals will be trained in maintaining and utilizing the land information system, so that the reliability of data gathering is enhanced;

(e) A land management computer system will be established, and connected with that of the world's relevant organizations as well as the computer systems of the land markets scattered all over China, to promote a network of information sharing;

(f) Modern computer software and hardware will be utilized to promote advancement in the fields of applied remote sensing, image processing, mapping, GPS as well as decision-making models and system analysis.

14.48 China will survey land resources at four levels: state, province, region or municipality and prefecture. Management of the survey data and land registration data will be computerized to facilitate information sharing within China as well as with other countries. The Government is to regularly release land information and policies to the public, and enhance women's role in this task.

14.49 Utilization and protection of wetland resources:

(a) Management of existing wetland will focus on preventing careless cultivation of the resource. In cases of real need, such as a small area for dikes, usage of wetland can be approved after the submission of the proper design for the project;

(b) Protection of wetland areas will be strengthened by setting up organizations, with legal means to enforce protection, in the most important areas. Laws and regulations shall be drafted to give the organizations enforcement tools;

(c) Wetland utilization and protection will be considered as an essential part of the overall planning of land resource utilization and protection, while a national strategy and action plan for wetland protection is to be envisaged. If an existing dike prohibits flood drainage, or spoils the scenery and the ecological environment of a lake or river, and if the reclaimed swamp is the breeding place of important aquatic birds, the dikes must be eliminated and the area allowed to return to swamp;

(d) China will actively engage in scientific research of wetland resources to determine the amount and distribution of wetland, the quality and utilization potential of various types of wetland, and the best way to manage wetland resources.

14.50 International cooperation. To actively participate in and promote international research on the sustainable utilization potential of land resources and to strive for international cooperation in comprehensive research on land use planning and sustainable productivity in five ecological types and five middle and small cities. Finally, to strive for international cooperation in the building of wetland reserves and scientific research on wetland resources.

E. Cultivation, Protection, Management and Sustainable Development of Forest Resources

Basis for action

14.51 China's forest area totaled 128.63 million hectares or 13.4 percent of China's total land area in 1991. The per capita forest area equals less than 15 percent of the world's average. Forest cover has increased by 39 million cubic meters from an annual deficit of 30 million cubic meters in the early 1980s, thus, in China there is a positive trend in the sustainable development of forest resources. But, the consumption of commercial forests still exceeds the growth. Forest quality remains poor with low canopy density, the country's average canopy density is 0.52. Large areas of forests are still threatened by uncontrollable degeneration, pests and plant diseases, misuse, and pressures resulting from energy shortages in rural areas. To eliminate the deficit in forest cover and prevent further destruction of forests united emergency efforts are needed to awaken public awareness and encourage public participation in conservation activities.

14.52 Forest is an essential component of China's land ecosystem. Besides offering commercial timber, it protects the environment by checking winds and reducing erosion, conserving water, taking dangerous carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, and enhancing and protecting the diversity of wildlife and their habitats. Forests are also valuable from the aspect of eco-tourism. China's traditions of exploitation and management tend to ignore this multi-functional character of forest resources. Attention is paid only to the direct commercial value of timber resources, while completely overlooking the ecological value. This has resulted in the deterioration of forest cover as evidenced by the present minimal existence of forest cover, low production capacity, worsening quality and the spread of pests and forest diseases. International organizations, consortia and the Chinese Government have begun to take note of the diversified ecological functions and characteristics of forest resources, and are anticipating the advent of protective measures.

14.53 The formulation of a national forest monitoring system is fundamental to forest management and sustainable forest utilization. At present, a state forest monitoring system has been completed, but systems at the prefecture or bureau level are still in the experimental phase. On the whole, China's forest monitoring system, especially that at the local level, needs improvement, despite some rudimentary achievements. There are many problems existing in the supervision and management of forest resources, such as free felling of forest, low timber prices, and interrelationship of forest ownership and user rights. The market economy requires a business management system of forest resources.

Objectives

14.54 China wishes to speed up afforestation, improve forest quality, increase total forest coverage to 15-16 percent by the end of the century, significantly eliminate the timber "deficit" of the whole country by 2000. Convergent with this goal is preventing the destruction and deterioration of existing forest, and promoting the general improvement of the ecological, economic and social benefits of forests.

14.55 China will adopt effective measures to maintain the ecological value of forests and appraise the resource benefit. Advance technologies and professional skills will be employed to design and carry out campaigns to maintain, manage and utilize forest resources.

14.56 China will set up a national forest monitoring system by the end of this century, which includes local networks, a data monitoring system and geographical information system. China will establish an assets management system for forests as soon as possible, implement the non-gratuitous usage of forest resources, and complete a forest monitoring and management system that fits into the market economy.

Activities

14.57 Activities of forest resources management:

(a) China will promote forest management activities to prevent forest destruction and further deterioration. China will plan for forest growth and utilization, enhance the forest management bodies at all levels, and work to increase the public awareness of the significance of afforestation. Tree planting will take specific land conditions into consideration, emphasize the fostering of mixed forest, adopt various afforestation methods, such as artificial afforestation, air-seeding, closing hillside for afforestation, and peripheral tree planting. Furthermore, China will implement a forest fell quota system through implementing planning of the total cut by utilizing restrictive management and supervision of forest felling, timber transporting and marketing and issuing timber felling licenses. Laws and regulating measures will be drafted and adopted to prevent illegal behaviors that damage forest resources. The "family contracting responsibility system" will be used in rural areas to encourage afforestation in deserted lands that are unfit for agricultural purposes;

(b) China will create a program to develop a forest management surveying system that incorporates relevant technical standards. China will establish and perfect four state level forest surveying centers in the Northeast, the middle South, the North and the Northwest. China will set up provincial and prefectural forest surveying bodies and create a national forest information database and the geographical information system. China will implement policies and regulations to promote experimentation on and spread of management models for monitoring forest ownership and usage. China will perfect the forest supervising agencies at provincial and prefectural levels to phase in a system for non-gratuitous use of forest resources, implement forest pricing and introduce a system which could push the forest production on to a market track. China will set up a unified, well suited to the socialist market economy new system which could incorporate supervisory work with forest resources and assets management. The government will supervise the implementation of a forest development program to monitor and control felling and regeneration. China will carry out price reform for forest products, gradually abolish the loss subsidy given to the forestry enterprises, and collect a compensation fee for exploiting forest resources;

(c) China will promote activities in the fostering and protection of forest resources. To accomplish this goal China will attach importance to the construction of bases for fast growing high-yield commercial forests, and reinforce the shelter forest network in the Northeast, Northwest and North of China, the shelter belts along the upper and middle Yangtze River Basin, the coastal shelter forest network and the afforestation project in Taihang Mountain. Furthermore, China will work to develop trees that are fast growing, have a high yield, have a high calorific value, and multi-functional trees to aid in solving the energy problem in rural areas and mountain areas with severe shortages of firewood. Emphasis should be placed on the fostering development of fuel forests, and encouraging the exploration of alternative energy sources such as biogas, solar energy, and more efficient wood burning kitchen ranges. Efforts will also be made to reinforce the protection of the forest zones, prevent forest destruction and deterioration caused by pollution, forest fire, plant disease, pests and artificial factors.

14.58 Activities to maintain the multiple functions of forest:

(a) Activities to implement a forest development program will take into consideration relevant agricultural programs and wildlife protection programs;

(b) The multiple functions of forests will be maintained by establishing natural forest reserves designed to protect and save rare and endangered animal and plant species, and establish breeding and raising centers of endangered animals;

(c) Afforestation of mountain areas, highlands, deserted lands, degenerated cultivated lands, dry and semi-dry areas and maritime belts will be carried out to prevent further deterioration of the ecosystem and to regenerate degraded lands;

(d) China will adopt forest utilization measures that are ecologically and economically feasible. Such measures include planning and management, improved equipment, storage and transportation and are aimed at minimizing waste and maximizing forest profitability;

(e) China will advocate better protection of natural forests and natural forest areas, encourage eco-tourism in virgin forests, and utilization of non-timber forest products such as herbs, gum, breeding, agriculture and aquaculture;

(f) Management functions in the prevention and control of forest fires, plant diseases, pests, and destructive felling of timber, will be reinforced and a number of demonstration projects will be established.

14.59 Activities in scientific research and educational training:

(a) China will double the attention given to forestry research by organizing subject teams to solve key problems of afforestation, and engage in the research on seed multiplication, containerized saplings, vegetative propagation, high yield tree saplings, and dry land afforestation. A quota system and methods for increased forest utilization and regulation of forest reclamation will be established;

(b) China will take various measures to improve the maintenance of the ecological values of forests. One goal will be to develop the forest public education system to make the value and multipurpose usage of forests known to the public. Research on forest values in relation to sustainable management, biodiversity, impact of air pollution, and evaluation and accounting of the commercial and the non-commercial value of forest resources will improve the maintenance of healthy forests. China will develop forest utilization and exploitation techniques that minimize the impact on the environment or are low in pollution, and work to develop and promote non-timber forest products. China will train forestry professionals and workers with the emphasis placed on the young and women. Furthermore, China will develop comprehensive prevention and control methods for pests and plant diseases, detection and forecasting of forest fires, and research and spread new fire prevention techniques.

14.60 China will set up demonstration project bases and training centers dedicated to the layout of the shelter belts and the network for fast growing high-yield forests. Model forest policies and management centers will be established and in one prefecture from each province or autonomous region will be selected for setting up demonstration units. China will set up a national training center for forest resources management and forestry administration.

14.61 International cooperation:

(a) China will cooperate with international organizations or concerned countries in scientific research, and work for foreign technological assistance in setting up demonstration projects and training bases to promote the international training and exchange of technical personnel;

(b) With the assistance of UNDP, China will finish the forest resources monitoring system for the whole country and some important provinces or autonomous regions;

(c) China will promote technological exchange in forest monitoring, with an emphasis on uninterrupted checking of forest resources, computerization, remote-sensing technology, application of geographic information system, data renewal applicable to mathematical models of forest resources and forecasting models;

(d) China will also adopt foreign experience in the business management and supervision of forest resources under the market economy;

(e) China will carry out exchange and cooperation with the international rural community in the field of forestry.

F. Sustainable Development and Conservation of Marine Resources

Basis for action

14.62 Marine resources are referred to as the materials and energy which occur in the marine environment and can be utilized by human beings. Marine resources can be divided into marine living resources, seabed mineral resources, seawater resources, marine energy and marine space resources. As provided in the United Nations Marine Convention, the inland seas, the territorial sea, the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zones over which China enjoys sovereignty and a jurisdiction have a vast area. This area is equivalent to one third of the land area in China, and constitutes a continental coastline of about eighteen thousand kilometers, an island coastline of about fourteen thousand kilometers, and an area of coastal intertidal zone of 20,799 square kilometers. The sea bed resources are extremely rich, including about 45.1 billion metric tonnes of oil reserve, about 14,100 billion cubic meters of natural gas reserve, and 1.525 billion tonnes of proven beach sand reserve including over sixty species of ores. The marine living resources cover a wide range of species, amounting to more than twenty thousand, of which about 26 hundred are available for utilization by offshore and intertidal fisheries. The sea fishing grounds cover a broad area. The largest lasting catch and the optimum availability of fishery resources are about 4.7 million tonnes and three million tonnes, respectively. In addition, there are rich seawater resources and marine energy resources. The preliminary estimates project that China has a total marine energy resource reserve of 431 million kilowatts (kW). The marine biological and mineral resources are the common wealth of humankind and China takes on its rights and obligations to support and utilize these resources.

14.63 The primary industries based on the development and utilization of marine resources in China are marine fishery, marine communications and transportation, sea salt and salt chemical industry, offshore oil and gas industry, sea beach tourist industry, sea beach sand mining industry, seawater utilization, and others. In 1990, the gross output of marine industries was 43.8 billion yuan in RMB, accounting for 1.15% of the gross national product. With respect to the management and conservation of marine resources, both a mechanism and a corresponding legal system for the management and conservation of marine resources have been established. Measures for pollution control and tackling have been implemented in some of the more heavily polluted local sea areas. Since 1990, the State Council has successively approved thirteen national marine natural reserves. Generally, there has already been a positive basis for making further efforts for the development, use and conservation of marine resources.

14.64 Currently, the management of marine resources in China is based on the attributes of the marine natural resources and the industries for their exploitation, and is carried out in a planned way by different industrial sectors. This management pattern is an extension of the managerial functions of various land based resource development sectors to the sector of ocean and seas. In this case, each of the sectors considers the exploitation and planning of marine resources from its own particular interest, so that the advantages and potentials of marine resources cannot be effectively utilized in an integrated manner. The ocean belongs to a dynamic macro-ecological system, making the marine resources mutually dependent and the exploitation activities interrelated and affected with each other. Therefore, it is imperative to change the traditional methods of managing marine resources and perfect the system for integrated management of marine resources. Most of the laws and regulations which have been enacted for the exploitation and conservation of marine resources in China are sectorial, single purpose regulations, lacking the comprehensive management regulations, the regional management regulations and the basic laws on ocean and seas which require all sectors to be bound by and to obey together. Some of the regulations are not coordinated and not systematic, and are basically an extension to the sea of the land based regulations not considering the inherently unique characteristics of ocean and seas. This has brought great difficulty to the management of marine resources on a legal basis.

14.65 The worsening of marine ecological environment has resulted in a dramatic downturn with respect to the abundance of marine biological resources. The main problems that the marine fishery resources in China face are an excess of total catch and a decline in traditional fishery resources. The main causes for the environmental deterioration of marine fishery resources are lack of planning and management, an out of control fishing industry, and increasing marine environmental pollution. However, because the problems of the marine fishery resources in China are related to some very complicated social and economic causes, it will be a long and tedious process to achieve the sustainable use of fishery resources and the sustainable development of fishery production.

14.66 The direct discharge of the pollutants from land based sources and sea based sources has caused some of the harbors and sea areas in China to be polluted to differing extent, and has particularly aggravated the organic pollution in sea areas. Nutrients such as nitrogen compounds, ammonia-N, nitrite-N and nitrate-N, and reactive phosphates have become the most important pollutants in the coastal waters of China. Where the eutrophication has been more obvious, the red tides have increased frequency of blooms, and the pollution in local offshore areas, irrational exploitation of estuary marshes and reclamation land from sea have formed a threat to the inhabitation and reproduction of marine life. In some areas, more serious pollution has led to large declines in fishery resources, declines in species of high quality, and has left uncultivated intertidal breeding grounds. The natural ecosystems in coastal waters and the living environment of habitants in coastal zones have also been directly threatened.

14.67 The coastal belt (including intertidal marshes) and island resources have a unique position and play a special role in the sustainable use and conservation of marine resources. China possesses more than 6 thousand islands, of which more than four hundred are inhabited. Apart from the islands of Hainan, Taiwan itself, Jinmen and Mazu, the remaining populated islands have a total land area of over four hundred square kilometers and a total population of over three million. Although geographically isolated from the mainland, there are many unique species of plant and animal present on these islands, there are still cultures of all forms, plenty of mineral and fishery resources, and a huge amount of tidal energy. These islands are separated by sea from the mainland and subsequently have limited space for activities, fewer facilities for communications, a low capability for self regulation and protection from disasters, a lack of freshwater resources, energy and manpower, and thus a need for a process to make conversions of the advantages of island resources into the advantages of economic development. The present low level of exploitation of island resources restrains the economic development of islands and the improvement of living standards for local inhabitants.

Objectives

14.68 China will work for marine resource protection through the improvement and reform of the existing management system for marine resources and the establishment of a new marine administrative system which will conform to the conditions of market economy. The administrative system will primarily operate in a comprehensive way of management by integrating sectoral management with comprehensive management, and classifying the administrative power in a hierarchical way from national level to local levels. The administrative group is to establish a set of legal systems for the sustainable use of marine resources, including the operable procedures for management and implementation in order to gradually realize a legalized management of marine resources and to conform to the world standard for management of marine resources.

14.69 As for the reinforced management of marine life and sustainable use of marine fishery resources, the utilization and conservation of marine fishery resources will be accomplished through the stabilization of marine fishing production, and mainly relying on the development of marine aquaculture resources for promoting the development of marine fishery. This will help create a benign circulation system for development and conservation of fishery resources and allow the marine fishery to have a continuous and steady growth of output, develop a system of high quality, high efficiency and low consumption, and eventually lead to the sustainable use and conservation of marine fishery resources.

14.70 China is to set up a network for monitoring and protecting the marine macro-ecological system and establish a service system for environmental forecasting. As for marine ecological and environmental protection, it is to strictly control the pollutant discharge from both land based and sea based sources, to prevent, reduce and control the degradation and the adverse long-term effects on marine ecosystems and to maintain the balance of marine ecosystems and the sustainable use of marine resources. China is to establish a network of logically located natural reserves and join the international network of oceanic natural reserves.

14.71 To maintain and promote marine biodiversity while improving the living standard of island inhabitants. The development of coastal belt and islands should impart a sustainable capability to deal with various adverse marine circumstances and minimize the adverse effects on marine and coastal resources to achieve the sustainable development of the island economies. It is planned to survey and investigate the resources in oceans and the polar circle and implement exploitation, utilization and protection of ocean resources.

Activities

14.72 Activities for perfecting an integrated mechanism for marine resource management are:

(a) To set up a national marine legislative system and improve the marine regulations for comprehensive management, including formulating the basic national marine laws and regulations for comprehensive management and regional management; formulating the Regulations on Continental Shelves and Exclusive Economic Zones, Marine Rock Belt Law, Law for Cooperative Management of Maritime Space, Basic Law for Development of Marine Resources and the Regulations on Marine Natural Reserves in order to come into alignment with international marine legislation; improving the standards for the quality of marine environment, the standards for marine biodiversity conservation and the standards for marine and coastal pollutant discharges. To develop the local policies and regulations on marine environmental protection and biodiversity conservation allowing the local bodies for marine comprehensive management to have an unique role. Training centers will be established to train the relevant officials in the coastal zone and island areas in marine laws and regulations and marine management, in order to improve the competencies and levels of local enforcement in marine management;

(b) To perfect the agency for coordination and management of maritime activities. It is necessary to reinforce maritime supervision and law enforcement ability, and raise the quality of the supervisory staff;

(c) To set up a system for marine resources monitoring which would require the omnibearing monitoring of coastal lines, offshore environmental quality, biological resources, ecosystem, intertidal marshes and sea level changes, and to establish an information system and data bank for marine resources management. It is necessary to set up a system for SDIA of marine resources to provide a scientific basis during examination, ratification and management of maritime development projects. It is likewise imperative to set up a system for non-gratuitous utilization of marine space;

(d) To exercise scientific and integrated control over logical development of marine resources in compliance with the division of marine functional regions and the national program for marine development;

(e) To envisage and supervise the implementation of guidelines and policies for sustainable utilization of marine resources, investigate and evaluate the current status of marine resources development and utilization throughout China, hammer out strategies to deal with various man- made or natural disasters and the influence of climate changes and sea level rise on the sustainable utilization of marine resources.

14.73 Activities for conservation of marine life are:

(a) To elaborate an action plan for monitoring and preserving marine macro-ecosystem in the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea while collaborating with the neighboring countries to reinforce the integrated management of marine biological resources and protect marine biodiversity;

(b) Actions for managing the marine fishery resources include devoting major efforts to developing sea farming resources by solidifying and raising the farming level of existing high quality species while developing new species and varieties for farming and farming technologies with high yield and lower consumption. To enhance the national macroscopic adjustment and control and economic incentive instruments to rationally develop marine fishing resources and to support the development of potential resources. To assess the environmental impact and the effects on sustainable development that will be brought about by the shift of fishery resource development from fishing to sea farming. To further perfect various kinds of fishery regulations, promoting the participation of fishermen in the activities of sustainable use and conservation of fishery resources, allowing the management and conservation of fishery resources on a legal and standardized basis, embarking enthusiastically on deep-sea fishing, conservation and development of biological resources in high seas;

(c) To continue the process of establishing marine natural reserves for conservation of important marine natural resources, ecosystem, natural scenery, biological species and ecological zones which are of great significance to scientific research. It is necessary to protect coral reefs, mangrove resources and their ecosystem in South China Sea and the southern part of East China Sea;

(d) To set up special marine reserves.

14.74 Actions for protection of marine environment include:

(a) To enhance land based pollution control, including constraining the total discharges of land based pollutants, identifying the coastal discharge outfalls and the acceptable discharge levels, setting a total amount control of the pollutants from land based sources, and using waste water treatment facilities to protect the shellfish farming grounds and sea beach tourist spots from a pollution. Enhancing treatment of municipal sewage discharged into rivers, harbors, or seas by using at least one primary process or other processes suitable for specific locations. Eliminating or reducing the discharges of the organic halogen and other organic compounds which may be concentrated to a dangerous level in the marine environment, and of the nitrogen and phosphorus containing pollutants which may cause eutrophication or red tides in the coastal waters. Promoting the use of the pesticides and fertilizers which are more environmentally sound, reducing the amount of pesticides and fertilizers in run off, and giving consideration to a ban of those pesticides and fertilizers which have been proven to be hazardous to the environment. Developing and implementing environmentally sound technologies and methods for land use to reduce the run off through waterways and harbors polluting the marine environment;

(b) Actions for control and management of sea based pollution activities, including requiring the sea transportation enterprises and the operators of sea based activities, such as oil drilling to have the emergency response abilities and facilities for dealing with the accidents of oil pollution and nuclear radioactive pollution. Taking actions to protect the coastal exclusive economic zones, marine ecological reserves, and other rare or vulnerable ecosystems. Evaluating the environmental impact or sustainable development impact of offshore oil and gas extractions, and taking measures for their control. Building facilities at harbor areas to collect used oils, chemical wastes and other refuse from ships, and gradually banning dumping wastes and incinerating hazardous materials at sea;

(c) Actions for perfecting the system for monitoring and supervising the marine environmental pollution and improving the three-dimensional monitoring and supervising capability along the sea coast, on the sea surface and in air.

14.75 Actions for development and protection of coastal belts and island resources include:

(a) Evaluating various island resources in terms of the kinds, distribution, concentration and development and giving a top priority to developing the island resources with a higher comprehensive economic value. Conducting a survey on the natural environment of coastal belts, islands and their marine species of life, formulating the measures to maintain the island specific culture and biodiversity and to conserve the endangered species and the marine ecosystems. Carrying out the sustainable development plans, making assessments of the impacts of some major activities on the sustainable development of coastal belt and islands, and reviewing and revising the existing polices and measures for non-sustainable development. Disseminating some ecologically sound and biodiversity friendly technologies for island development. Undertaking zoned sea area management and zoned marine environmental monitoring and protection for islands. Taking measures to ensure environmental quality, devising the standards for pollutant discharge and the measures for pollution control in neighboring sea areas to control marine pollution; improving the preparedness of coastal zones and islands against disasters and raising the cultural quality, living standards and ability of inhabitants in the field of sustainable development;

(b) Accelerating the development of the port site resources on islands, making communications and transportation facilities available as soon as possible, and allowing the island ports to be the satellite ports of land-based ports; speeding up the development of island tourist resources to construct a number of island tourist spots; facilitating the development of the energy resources such as marine energy, solar energy and wind energy, and the development and intensive processing of mineral resources; controlling the growth of population on islands to reduce the burden of population on the islands' resources and environment while strengthening the education and the personal exchange between islands and mainland to improve the cultural quality of islands habitants and their ability for sustainable development; greening the wild islands by planting trees to create scenic and shelter forests to improve the resistance to violent typhoons.

14.76 Actions for the development of oceanographical science and technology and the construction of demonstration projects include:

(a) Strengthening the construction of scientific research system on the marine environment including: carrying out the studies of the basic disciplines such as marine biology, marine geology, geophysics and marine living resources economics. China is promoting research and development on the technology for land based and sea based pollution control, the technology and equipment for emergency response to marine pollution accidents and the technology for marine ecological and natural conservation. Improving the standards for wastewater discharge, the measures for the overall control of land based pollutants, and the measures for prediction, forecast and control of the environmental impact of dumping at sea and the burst of red tides;

(b) China is promoting research work on development, the technology for development of marine resources and using the land and sea spaces of islands and the technology for deep processing of the materials such as aquatic products and mineral products. China will put greater efforts into studying the environmental carrying capacity and purifying capability in island areas to determine the scale and distribution of a rational development of island industries, and the human carrying capacity. China is studying the technology for the sustainable development impact assessment for environmental protection, comprehensive utilization and construction projects in islands. China will promote the enhancement and the development of the technologies for coast and island protection works, protection from marine natural disasters, freshwater storage and seawater desalination, and direct utilization and development of high-tech sectors such as marine biotechnology, sea food, aquatic medicine, marine farming and pasturing. China is to set up a number of demonstration projects such as those on aquaculture, scenic spots construction, intertidal zone multi-purpose operations, use of new energy, and comprehensive utilization of resources and their products;

(c) China is to strengthen marine scientific and technical research to meet the demand for marine resources development and marine environmental protection;

(d) China is to launch experiments targeted at the integrated utilization and sustainable development of marine resources including setting up ecological demonstration regions in the Bohai Sea and integrated development areas in other major bays. It is also planned to embark on experiments which will coordinate conservation with development of marine natural reserves on the Nanji Islands in order to build a "Man and Biocircle" protection zone.

14.77 Actions for international cooperation include:

(a) China will conduct scientific research work on the survey of marine resources in collaboration with international organizations and related countries, and seek technical assistance from abroad for training and exchange of technical personnel with other countries;

(b) China will cooperate with its neighboring countries and international organizations to implement the action plans for monitoring and protecting the marine macro-ecological system in the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea and to jointly protect and control the marine life resources;

(c) China will continue to cooperatively study isolated ecological systems, sediment pollution and ecological effect monitoring, sea area pollution control and management technologies, and the models for the forecast of oil spill drift movement, and the control technology and prediction methods for red tides;

(d) China will continue using funds from international assistance agencies to build a number of demonstration projects for environmentally sound discharge of sewage into the marine environment;

(e) Exchanging the data and information on maritime development, including the information on the exploitation, conservation and management of marine resources;

(f) Introducing the advanced technologies to exploit the coastal belt and island resources, or introducing financial and human resources to develop the coastal belt and island economy on a cooperative basis, for example, the exploitation of oil field by international cooperation;

(g) China will strengthen cooperation with peripheral countries to establish the regional network for monitoring the marine environment, coordinate policies for protecting marine environment and resources, and work out regional fishery agreements to jointly protect the ecosystem and fishery resources within the seas of China;

(h) Launching international cooperative research and conservation of coral reefs and mangrove forests in the South China Sea;

(i) China will collaborate with international organizations and related countries to establish marine life conservation zones in key subtropical sea areas and set up East-Asian demonstration regions for remediation and control of marine pollution.

G. Rational Development, Utilization and Protection of Mineral Resources

Basis for action

14.78 Mineral resources are non-renewable resources which should be extraordinary cherished and rationally allocated and efficiently developed and utilized. Although China is rich in mineral resources in terms of their total amount, the per capita figures are less than half of the world's average. Currently 95% of energy and 80% of industrial raw materials needed for economic construction depend upon the mineral resources supply. The proven reserves of minerals are evidently insufficient and will become acutely in short supply during the 21st century to ensure the sustainable development of national economy. Meanwhile, a lot of problems in the exploitation of mineral resources coupled with low level of integrated development and utilization of resources have aggravated the gap between demand and supply of mineral resources. Efforts should be directed towards both increasing production and reducing consumption. Apart from reinforcing the geological exploration of minerals and boosting their proven reserves, it is necessary to stick to the basic policy of "protection, conservation and rational utilization of resources" and heighten the public awareness concerning the significance of rational exploitation and utilization of mineral resources as required by the coordinated development of the economy and society.

14.79 The irrational exploitation of mineral resources not only leads to waste of minerals but to ecological and environmental degradation. According to statistics occupation of vast space and surface subsidence resulted from chaotic dumping of tailings and wastes of large-scale mining have amounted to two million hectares and are still growing an average of 25 thousand hectares of land annually, which has been bringing about atmospheric and water pollution and soil contamination, aggravating soil erosion and triggering subsidence, landslide, mud-rock flow and other geological disasters. Hence, to effectively curb the irrational development mode and to reduce the environmental cost incurred due to exploitation of mineral resources do represent an urgent task to be tackled during development and utilization of mineral resources in China.

Objectives

14.80 The overall objectives for protection and sustainable utilization of mineral resources are: making appropriate use of overseas resources apart from rational development and utilization of domestic mineral resources to raise the level of optimized allocation, logical development and utilization of resources to meet to the fullest extent the demand of national economy for mineral resources; minimizing the environmental cost paid out for exploitation of mineral resources; and improving all-round cost effectiveness, environmental effects and social benefits. The major goals are as follows:

(a) Reinforcing geological exploration to provide to the utmost degree for the national economy with necessary proven reserves and geological information on major minerals in compliance with the needs of economic construction and geological capability;

(b) Setting up a property management system for mineral resources to deal properly with the economic relationship between the owner and the operator of mineral resources as well as between the central and local governments; strengthening the development, supervision and control over mineral resources to restrain effectively the chaotic exploitation and extraction of minerals; and working hard to ensure all-round improvement of order in mining industry and to implement rational development and use of mineral sources;

(c) Raising the level of comprehensive development and utilization of industrial wastes from mining; striving to realize reclamation of mine tailings, waste rocks, sewage and waste gases and detoxification of the environment; and introducing a system for environmental restoration and renovation after closure of mines;

(d) Establishing a system for management of geological exploration and mineral resources, suited to the requirements of market economy, to help bolster the benign circle of geological exploratory work and give full play to the cardinal role of market-oriented mechanism in respect to optimized allocation of mineral resources;

(e) Establishing and improving the law and legislative system to bring the exploration of mineral resources, conservation of geological environment, geological exploration and administrative work onto the track of legislation.

Activities

14.81 The activities with respect to management of mineral resources include:

(a) Perfecting the framework of laws on mineral resources which stipulates and standardizes the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources;

(b) Setting up a law enforcement and supervision system which combines a centralized and unified guidance with a hierarchical mode of management from national to local levels;

(c) Conducting regular and non-scheduled analyses of the situation pertaining supply and demand of mineral resources, as well as study of perspective regional distribution of mineral formations, forecast of overall mineral resources and launching research work on distribution of mineral resources according to economic regions;

(d) Hammering out strategies for development of mineral resources, policies for resource management and resource planning;

(e) Establishing and perfecting the mineral resources accounting system, the system for non- gratuitous possession and exploitation of minerals and the system for propertied management.

14.82 The activities pertaining to comprehensive survey, exploration, evaluation and management of mineral resources include:

(a) Elaborating programs for comprehensive survey, exploration and evaluation of various mineral resources;

(b) Setting up data banks for comprehensive survey, exploration and evaluation of mineral resources at national and provincial (regional) levels;

(c) Strictly implementing the system for examining the qualification of bodies engaged in reconnaissance and exploration of mineral resources and the system for registration of exploratory work;

(d) Formulating a system for non-gratuitous use of geological and exploratory achievements in conformity with the requirements of market economy and implementing an economic operation system aimed at the benign circulation of input and output in geological and exploratory work.

14.83 Activities aimed at environmental protection and management of mines include the following:

(a) Formulating regulations and rules for environmental protection of mines, protecting the environment in mines by law, and performing the principle of "who develops, protects; who closes the pit, reclaims it; who destroys, tackles";

(b) Formulating mine specific EIA and management procedures, and conducting inspection of environmental quality in mines to implement the overall course for environmental management on mine development;

(c) Investigating and assessing the status of destroyed natural environments in mines throughout China in order to formulate the plans for their protection and reclamation;

(d) Introducing economic incentive instruments to encourage efforts targeted at integrated utilization of mineral resources and reclamation of industrial wastes in mining enterprises and help bolster techniques for minimization of waste discharges and cleaner production during exploitation of mineral resources;

(e) Introducing and imposing the fee of ecological and environmental compensation for mineral resource development, fund of guarantee for reclamation to reduce the environmental cost incurred by development of mineral resource.

14.84 International cooperation will include the following areas:

(a) Establishing a mineral resources management system which combines the market-oriented mechanism with macro-economic adjustment via policy-making;

(b) Mapping out policies for import and export of mineral resources in conformance with domestic availability of resources and dynamic changes of international market;

(c) Introducing and disseminating techniques for comprehensive exploration and development of coal and minerals of non-ferrous and rare metals;

(d) Setting up the mineral resources accounting system and the system for management of assets, and creating a network for supervision of geological environment;

(e) Fostering efforts targeted at reclamation of mining wastes and detoxification of the environment during exploitation of minerals;

(f) Launching cooperative study of mineral resources legislation and training personnel engaged in mineral resources management and environmental control.

H. Sustainable Utilization and Conservation of Grassland Resources

Basis for action

14.85 The total area of utilizable grassland in China amounts to 310 million hectares, including 105.3 thousand hectares of artificial sown grass. The grassland resources represent the largest ecological system on the Chinese mainland, which plays an important role and is of great significance for development of livestock husbandry, conservation of biodiversity, water and soil conservation and maintaining ecological balance. The grassland in China is located in five regions, i. e. the Northeast grassland, the Mongolia- Ningxia-Gansu grassland, the Xinjiang grassland, the Qinghai-Tibet grassland and the grassy mountains in South China.

14.86 The distribution, use and development of grassland resources in China have the following peculiarities:

(a) The grassland, characterized by its vast area, extensive distribution and diversified types, represent a crops-saving herding resource and is suited in some localities for comprehensive development and diversified economic activities;

(b) Most pasturable grassland and grassy mountainous regions are inhabited by ethnic minorities, a significant part of which dwells in the old liberated and poverty-ridden areas;

(c) The grassland and meadow regions are mostly located in the fountain heads and upper or middle reaches of the Yellow River, the Yangtze River, the Huaihe River and other water systems and are playing the role of the ecological shelter;

(d) Currently the average utilization rate of grassland resources accounts for less than 50% with approximate 27 million hectares of water-deficient grassland and summer pasture in grazing regions remaining unutilized logically.

14.87 Owing to the continued uncontrolled extensive exploitation of grassland resources in the context of stressing the utilization and development without attaching importance to the construction and management, grassland resources of China are confronted with a serious crisis, which may be stated as follows:

(a) Over-grazing and excessive stocking density, indiscriminate reclamation and chaotic cultivation have led to serious destruction of grassland. The grassland construction lacks unified planned management and infusion of insignificant investment has delayed the pace of construction. The area of degraded, desertified and alkalinized grassland increases with every year and its output capability is declining continuously. The degenerated grassland in China constitutes 866.7 thousand square kilometers, making up one third of the overall area of utilizable grassland. The trend of degeneration is gaining momentum;

(b) The nutrient content in grassland soil is decreasing dramatically. There is serious destruction of animal and flora resources on grassland, while the output capacity of grass declines remarkably. If China does not take effective measures, the grass output on meadow will drop by 30% by the year 2000 thus aggravating ecological and environmental deterioration on grassland;

(c) Currently the livestock husbandry on the grassland is basically at the utilization stage suited for primitive natural herding which cannot bring the comprehensive advantages and productive potentials of grassland into full play. The production capacity in pasturing regions of China comprises merely 5-10% to that of the developed countries such as the US and Australia.

Objectives

14.88 The main objectives of this program area are:

(a) Increasing artificial sown grass and improved meadow by 23.33 million hectares and hurdled meadow by 14.67 million hectares by the turn of century. By that time the accumulated artificial sown grass and improved grassland will comprise 33.33 million hectares and the area of hurdled meadow will constitute twenty million hectares so that the artificial sown grass and improved meadow will make up around 10% of the utilizable grassland. It is projected to set up twenty natural reserves of grass to basically put the trend of grassland degeneration and eco- environmental deterioration under control;

(b) Primarily harnessing approximately 26 million hectares of grassland by the year 2000 to be on a par with or surpass the rate of grass degeneration resulted from degradation, desertification and alkalinization of grassland. By the year 2020 up to 66.67 million hectares of degraded, desertified and alkalinized grassland will be effectively protected and tamed to realize the transition of grass ecosystem from the vicious circle to a benign one.

Activities

14.89 Activities for conservation and management of grassland resources include:

(a) Reinforcing the law formulation and organizational construction in conformity with the Grassland Law and imposing punishment in line with the Grassland Law and relevant regulations, in terms of criticizing, warning, fines or compensation according to economic loss for those engaged in plundering use of grassland, including unauthorized cultivation, barbarous digging, indiscriminate raking of grass and over-herding, as well as indictment of criminals for their criminal responsibilities. It is imperative to introduce non-gratuitous use of meadow and using economic incentive instruments for constraining over-utilization of grassland resources;

(b) Strengthening grassland construction to harness degenerated grassland. Enthusiastically embarking on the construction of artificial and semi-artificial sown meadow with combined efforts of the state, the collective and individuals, disseminating fenced meadow, and actively improving degraded meadow. Using low-lying land for accumulation of rainfall and surface runoff to irrigate the neighbouring meadow. Conducting loose turn-up of soil and supplementary sowing to raise the grass output, wherever conditions allow. Actively developing artificial sown grass and realizing ley farming in appropriate regions. Adopting scientific measures to combat in a comprehensive way disasters due to grass disease, pests, and rats, and paying attention to prevent contamination of grassland due to insecticides and waste discharges from industrial enterprises and protecting natural enemies to rats, including the yellow weasels, hawks and foxes.

14.90 Activities for scientific research of grassland resources include:

(a) Strengthening the scientific management of livestock farming on grassland. It is necessary to control appropriately the livestock population, adjust livestock structure and breed livestock in dependence on availability of grass to avoid excessive stocking density and overgrazing. It is necessary to set up seasonal camps which may last two or three seasons, actively spread hurdled rotational grazing, and implement a cooperative contracting system for non-gratuitous use of meadow;

(b) Enthusiastically developing new energy sources including the solar and wind energy and biogas for herding regions and providing daily life fuel to the pasturage inhabitants to alleviate destruction of natural vegetation;

(c) Implementing the principle of "prospering the grassland by means of science and technology" to develop the science of grass breeding and reinforce the research work on the systematic process of grass industry and grass ecology. Introduce, domesticate, screen and breed fine forage grass, reinforce techniques for protecting grass from harm due to diseases, pests and rats, and restore the degraded grassland to support the benign circle of grass ecosystem. Meanwhile, establish a permanent network for supervising the grassland ecology to provide a scientific basis for grassland construction and management.

14.91 Construction of projects for sustainable utilization of grassland resources will include:

(a) Construction of natural grass reserves, including the low and medium-altitude shrub meadow on the Huangshan Mountain in Anhui, the grassy marshlands on the Annimaqing Mountain in Qinghai, the Ruoergai frigid marshy grassland in Sichuan, the Grand Nine Lakes grassy marshlands on the Shennongjia Ridge of Hubei, the seashore saline grassy marshlands along the Yellow River delta in Shandong, the Hulunbeier grassy marshlands and typical meadow of Lingelei in Inner Mongolia, and the hillside forest grassland on the Tianshan Mountain in Xinjiang;

(b) Construction projects for upgrading the degraded grassland including those in the Northern and partly Southern Xinjiang, in regions surrounding the Qinghai Lake, the Gannan district and the Western Yellow River Corridor in Gansu, the hilly regions along the Taihang and Lulian Mountain Ranges in Shanxi, the southern wing of the Big Xingan Mountain Ridge and the Southern Inner Mongolian Plateau;

(c) Construction of demonstration projects for comprehensive development of grassland resources such as the self-contained and subsistent pasturing projects in the grassy regions of North China, Northwest China and Southwest China, and projects for development of livestock meat, fur and fine hair in North China.